1
CHARACTERIZATION OF THE
PARTICLE SIZE
DISTRIBUTION
,
MINERALOGY
1
AND
FE MODE OF OCCURRENCE
OF DUST
-
EMITTING SEDIMENTS
2
ACROSS
THE MOJAVE DESERT, CALIFORNIA, USA
3
Adolfo González
-
Romero
1,2,3
, Cristina González
-
Fl
ó
rez
1,3
, Agnesh Panta
4
, Jesús Yus
-
Díez
5
,
Patricia
4
Córdoba
2
, Andres Alastuey
2
, Natalia Moreno
2
, Melani Hernández
-
Chiriboga
1
, Konrad Kandler
4
,
5
Martina Klose
6
, Roger N. Clark
7
, Bethany L. Ehlmann
8
, Rebecca
N.
Greenberger
8
, Abigail M. Keebler
8
,
6
Phil Brod
r
ick
9
, Robert Green
9
,
Paul Ginoux
10
,
Xavier Querol
2
, Carlos Pérez García
-
Pando
1,1
1
7
8
1
Barcelona Supercomputing Center (BSC), Barcelona, Spain
9
2
Spanish Research Council, Institute of Environmental Assessment and water Research (IDAEA
-
CSIC),
10
Barcelona, Spain
11
3
Polytechnical University of Catalonia (UPC), Barcelona, Spain
12
4
Institute of Applied Geosciences, Technical University Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
13
5
Centre for Atmospheric Research, University of Nova Gorica, Ajdovščina, Slovenia.
14
6
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT),
Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research
Troposphere
15
Research
(IMKTRO), Karlsruhe, Germany
16
7
PSI Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, AZ, USA
17
8
California Institu
te of T
echnology, Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences
, Pasadena
, CA
, USA
18
9
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology
19
10
NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, Princeton, NJ, USA
20
1
1
Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
21
22
Corresponding author:
Adolfo González
-
Romero (
agonzal3@bsc.es
) and Xavier Querol
23
(xavier.querol
@
idaea.csic.es)
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-434
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2
Abstract
45
Understanding the effect of dust upon climate and ecosystems needs comprehensive analyses of the
46
physiochemical properties of dust
-
emitting sediments in arid regions.
Here
, we
analyse
a diverse set
47
of crusts and aeolian ripples (n=55) from various dust
-
hotspots within the Mojave Desert, California,
48
USA, with focus on their particle size distribution (PSD), mineralogy, aggregation/cohesion state and
49
iron mode of occurrence
characterization
. Our results showed differences in fully and minimally
50
dispersed PSDs, with crusts average median diameters
(
92 and 37 μm, respectively
)
compared to
51
aeolian ripples (226 and 213 μm, respectively). Mineralogical analyses unveiled variations between
52
crusts and ripples, with crusts enriched in phyllosilicates (24 vs 7.8 %), carbonates (6.6 vs 1.1 %), Na
-
53
salts (7.3 vs 1.1 %) and zeolites (1.2 and 0.12 %), while ripples
enriched
in feldspars (48 vs 37 %), quartz
54
(32 vs 16 %), and gypsum (4.7 vs 3.1 %). Bulk Fe content analyses indicate higher concentrations in
55
crusts (3.0±1.3 wt %) compared to ripples (1.9±1.1 wt %), with similar Fe speciation proportions; nano
56
Fe
-
oxides
/
readily exchangeable Fe represent ~1.6 %, hematite/goethite ~15 %, magnetite/maghemite
57
~2.0 % and structural Fe in silicates ~80 %
of the total Fe
.
We
identified segregation patterns in PSD
58
and mineralogy differences within the Mojave basin
s
, influenced by sediment transportation
59
dynamics and precipitates
due to
ground
water table fluctuations. Mojave Desert
crusts
show
60
similarities with previously sampled
crusts
in the Moroccan Sahara
for
PSD and readily exchangeable
61
Fe, yet exhibit differences in mineralogical composition, which could influence
the
emitted dust
62
particles
characteristics.
63
64
Keywords:
Arid regions, dust
sources, desert dust, dust
-
emitting
sediment
formation model, dust
65
mineralogy
.
66
67
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3
1. Introduction
68
Desert dust produced by wind erosion of arid and semi
-
arid surfaces has important effects on climate
69
and ecosystems (Weaver et al., 2002; Goudie & Middleton, 2006; Sullivan et al., 2007; Crumeyrolle et
70
al., 2008; De Longeville et al., 2010; Karanasiou et al., 2012; Pérez García
-
Pando et al., 2014; among
71
others). Dust affects the energy and water cycles through its absorption and scattering of both
72
shortwave (SW) and longwave (LW) radiation (Perez et al., 2006; Miller et al., 2014), and exerts
73
influence on cloud formation, precipitation patterns, and the associated indirect radiative forcing by
74
serving as nuclei for liquid and ice clouds (Harrison et al., 2019). Dust also undergoes heterogeneous
75
chemical reactions in the atmosphere that enhance their hygroscopicity and modify their optical
76
properties (Bauer et al., 2005), and when deposited into ocean waters, its bioavailable iron content
77
acts as a catalyst for photosynthesis by ocean phytoplankton, thereby increasing carbon dioxide
78
uptake and influencing the global carbon cycle (Jickells et al., 2005).
79
Both dust emission processes and climate perturbations by dust depend fundamentally upon the
80
physical and chemical properties of the dust
-
emitting sediments from different sources. For instance,
81
the particle size distribution (PSD) and cohesion of the sediments affect saltation bombardment and
82
aggregate disintegration processes involved in dust emission (
Shao et al., 1993
). The content of iron
83
oxides (mainly hematite and goethite) determines the absorption of solar radiation by dust (Formenti
84
et al., 2014; Engelbrecht et al., 2016; Di Biagio et al., 2019; Zubko et al., 2019), that of nano Fe oxides
85
and easily exchangeable Fe increase the fertilising effect of dust in ocean and terrestrial ecosystems
86
(Baldo et al., 2020), and that of K
-
feldspar and quartz increases the ice nucleation efficiency of dust
87
(Atkinson et al., 2013; Harrison et al., 2019; Chatziparaschos et al., 2023). Overall, a notable gap exists
88
in our understanding of
the
properties
of dust
-
emitting sediments
, including particle size distribution
,
89
cohesion,
mineral composition
,
and Fe mode of occurrence from different dust sources
. This
90
deficiency hinders the development of precise model simulations necessary for accurately assessing
91
the emission and transport of dust and its associated climate and environmental impacts (Raupach et
92
al., 1993; Laurent et al., 2008; Perlwitz et al., 2015; Kok et al., 2021).
93
This study focuses on the characterization of dust
-
emitting sediments from the Mojave Desert. The
94
Mojave Desert is a closed
-
basin wedge
-
shaped region located in the southwestern United States,
95
between California and Nevada. The region is surrounded by mountain ranges and traversed by the
96
Mojave river and other
intermittent
rivers for over 200 km from the San Bernardino mountains to the
97
east (Dibblee, 1967, Reheis et al., 2012). Despite its limited global importance (dust emission from
98
North America represents only ~3 % of the global dust emission, Kok et al., 2021), the
Mojave Desert
99
is an important regional dust source (Ginoux et al., 2012), with most emission occurring in the playa
100
lakes. Reynolds et al. (2009) observed 71 days with dust plumes during 37 months of camera recording
101
at the Franklin playa lake. According to remote sensing data (MODIS) from years 2000
-
2005 over the
102
Mojave Desert, aerosol optical depth (AOD) is higher in spring and summer and reaches a minimum
103
in winter (Frank et al., 2007). However, from November to May, eastward flows of the jet
-
stream
104
affect the Mojave Desert, which, in combination with topography, favour the development of
105
northern winds that can lead to dust emission (Urban et al., 2009). Up to 65 % of emission in the
106
Mojave Desert is estimated to be due to natural while the remaining 35 % is caused by anthropogenic
107
activities, including off
-
road recreation practices, mine operations, and military training, while cattle
108
grazing has reduced vegetation cover (Frank et al., 2007). The AOD in this region is also affected by
109
dust transported from other regions (Tong et al., 2012) and pollution transported from the Los Angeles
110
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Basin (Frank et al., 2007, Urban et al., 2009). In the Mojave Desert, Reynolds et al. (2009) noted an
111
association between wet periods and dust emission, directly related to the generation of new thin
112
crusts and salt crust removal.
113
The Mojave Desert
includes
several significant playa lakes,
such as
Rogers and Rosemond, Owens Lake,
114
Death
-
Valley
-
Badwater, Panamint Valley, Bristol, Cadiz and Danby, Searles Lake, Soda Lake, and
115
Mesquite Lake, among others (Potter and Coppernoll
-
Houston, 2019). Reynolds et al. (2009)
116
distinguished between two types of playa lakes: wet playas influenced by groundwater, and dry playas,
117
unaffected by groundwater, though both can experience surface
-
water runoff. Goudie (2018) further
118
delineated wet playas as having a groundwater table within 5 m of the surface, while dry playas have
119
a groundwater table deeper than 5 m. Additionally, Goudie (2018) observed that the interaction
120
between salt minerals and the groundwater table on wet playas lead to the formation of fluffy surfaces
121
through salt reworking by water during evapotranspiration.
122
Eghbal & Southard (1993) described three different aridisols present in the Rand mountains
all
uvial
123
fan. The uppermost layer, ranging from 0 to 1 cm in depth exhibited a texture of 15
-
30% gravel, 69
-
74
124
% sand and 10
-
11 % clay. The mineralogy of those samples was dominated by quartz, feldspars,
125
amphiboles, and clay minerals, including smectite, mica and kaolinite (Eghbal & Southard, 1993). The
126
Cronese Lakes and Soda Lake playas are documented to contain salt precipitates, but mineralogy is
127
not specified. Mesquite Lake playa is noted for its gypsum deposits (Reynolds et al., 2009). At Franklin
128
Lake playa, surfaces are characterized by silt
-
clay size particles (Goldstein et al., 2017) with
129
mineralogical descriptions provided by Reynolds et al. (2009) indicating fluffy surfaces comprised of
130
halite, thenardite, trona, burkeite, calcite, illite, smectite, and kaolinite. Furthermore, Goldstein et al.
131
(2017)
identified
a diverse array of minerals at Franklin Lake playa
, including
clays, zeolites,
132
plagioclase, K
-
feldspar, quartz, calcite, dolomite and salt minerals such as trona, halite, burkeite and
133
thenardite.
134
This study characterises the particle size distribution, mineralogy and mode of occurrence of Fe of
135
dust
-
emitting sediments in the Mojave Desert, where a sediment sampling was carried out in 2022
136
around the Soda, Mesquite, Ivanpah, Coyote and Cronese playa lakes, in the context of the FRontiers
137
in dust minerAloGical coMposition and its Effects upoN climate (FRAGMENT) project. The results are
138
compared with those from previous campaigns carried out in the Moroccan Sahara in 2019 (González
-
139
Romero et al., 2023) and Iceland in 2021 (González
-
Romero et al., 2024).
140
2. Methodology
141
2.1 Study area
142
The Mojave Desert, located between California and Nevada, has a diverse geological history spanning
143
from the Cambrian and Precambrian eras to the
Holocene. This geological complexity e
n
compasses
144
volcanic, plutonic, metamorphic, and sedimentary units (Jennings et al., 1962; Miller et al., 2014). In
145
areas once submerged during the last glacial maximum, we now find ephemeral playa lakes, offering
146
a glimpse into the region's dynamic past
(Miller et al., 2018). These playa lakes, surrounded by a variety
147
of source rocks, exhibit
diverse
particle sizes and compositions.
One such examples is Soda Lake,
148
located near Baker, CA, which undergoes influences from aeolian, alluvial and fluvial processes, and
149
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5
experiences an annual precipitation of 80
-
100mm (Urban et al., 2018). This ephemeral lake contains
150
salts resulting from the evaporation of groundwater sourced from an aquifer nestled in the Zzyzx
151
mountains (Honke et al., 2019). Dust emissions are a recurrent phenomenon, primarily originated
152
from fine sediments accumulated in the lake ́s central areas during sporadic floodings, as well as from
153
the white evaporite surfaces found in the lake (Urban et al., 2018).
154
Samples of dust
-
emitting sediments were collected from various sites within the Mojave Desert
155
region. Among these sites is Soda Lake, situated near the Zzyzx complex, which is linked to Silver Lake
156
to the north, and surrounded by igneous, volcanic and carbonate rocks, as well as dune fields to the
157
south (Figure 1). Adjacent to
Soda Lake
lie the Cronese lakes, positioned to the northwest and sharing
158
a similar geologic context (Figure 1). Mesquite Lake, located on the border between California and
159
Nevada, is encircled by carbonate and igneous rocks, mirroring the geological setting of the nearby
160
Ivanpah Lake (Figure 1). Notably, Mesquite Lake playa is the only playa affected by a gypsum
-
mine pit,
161
as documented by Reynolds et al. (2009). Further contributing to the diversity of the region's
162
geological makeup is Coyote Lake, flanked by Miocene and Pleistocene sediments
(
Figure 1). These
163
playa lakes, characterized as endorheic ephemeral lakes, receive in some cases groundwater inputs,
164
enriching the lakes with salts that subsequently precipitate on the surfaces of their central regions
165
(Whitney et al., 2015; Urban et al., 2018).
166
Figure 2 illustrates the regional distribution of the annual Frequency of Occurrence (FoO) of dust
167
events with dust
o
ptical depth exceeding 0.1, as derived from MODIS Deep Blue
C6.1 Level 2
data.
168
Notably, the map highlights active dust hotspots at Soda, Cronese, and Coyote lakes, as w
ell as at
169
Ivanpah and Mesquite l
akes, alongside other notable areas (Figure 2). Preliminary mineralogical
170
identification maps derived from the Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation (EMIT) imaging
171
spectrometer onboard of the International Space Station (Green et al., 2020) based on the mineral
172
mapping refinement technique developed by Clark et al. (2023) known as Tetracorder, offer a glimpse
173
into the rich mineralogical tapestry of the region (Figure 3). These analyses reveal the widespread
174
presence of phyllosilicates such as kaolinite, smectite, montmorillonite, and illite across the area, with
175
the northeastern sector, particularly around Mesquite Lake, exhibiting notable concentrations of
176
carbonates and gypsum. Additionally, goethite and hematite are detected, with a more pronounced
177
presence of goethite in the northern portion and of hematite in the southern part of the region. Of
178
significance is the detection of mixtures of Fe
2+
and Fe
3+
within various minerals,
enriching our
179
understanding of the region's mineralogical diversity.
180
2.2 Sampling
181
Representative surfaces of dust
-
emitting sediments were
sampled in the above playa lakes, with
182
depths of up to 3 cm, using a 5 cm
2
inox shovel. Samples were stored in a plastic bag, labelled, and
183
documented with photographs,
descriptions,
an
d
coordinates, and transported to the laboratories for
184
subsequent analyses. The type of samples considered are crusts (semi
-
cohesive fine sediments
185
accumulated during floodings in depressions) and ripples (aeolian ripples that are built up under
186
favourable winds and supply sand for saltation) (Figure 4). Once in the laboratory, the samples were
187
dried for 24
-
48 h at 40
-
50 ºC, sieved to pass through a 2 mm mesh, and separated into homogeneous
188
sub
-
samples for subsequent analyses.
189
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A total of 55 surface sediments and ripples (32 from Soda Lake, 9 from Mesquite Lake, 1 from Ivanpah
190
Lake, 11 from the Cronese Lakes, and 2 from Coyote Lake) were sampled in May 2022 for laboratory
191
analysis.
192
2.3 Analyses
193
2.3.1 Particle size distribution
194
Particle size distributions (PSD) were analysed as described in González
-
Romero et al. (2023) to
195
characterise the natural aggregation of particles in the sample in a minimally dispersed condition
196
(MDPSD) as well as following disaggregation to measure the PSD of the sample in a fully dispersed
197
condition (FDPSD). Both PSDs (MDPSD and FDPSD) were obtained by a laser diffractometer with the
198
Malvern Mastersizer 2000 Hydro G and Scirocco for the fully and minimally dispersed conditions,
199
respectively. The method for fully dispersed characterization followed the procedure described by
200
Sperazza et al. (2004).
201
2.3.2 Mineralogical composition
202
To quantify the different contents of crystalline minerals and amorphous components,
X
-
Ray
203
Diffraction (
XRD
)
coupled with a Rietveld quantitative method were used (Rietveld, 1969; Cheary and
204
Coelho, 1992; Young, 1995 and Topas, 2018). Adding a known amount of an internal standard material
205
allow
ed,
via the Rietveld method
,
the quantification of a mixture of minerals and any non
-
crystalline
206
material in the mixture not included in the Rietveld method (De la Torre et al., 2001; Madsen, 2001,
207
Scarlett and Madsen, 2006; Machiels et al., 2010; Ibañez et al., 2013). For the analysis
,
a
measured
208
amount of dry
ground
ed sample is mixed and dry gr
ound
ed again with 10
-
20 % of fluorite (CaF
2
209
powder, Merck), used here as an internal standard for quantitative purposes. The XRD patterns of the
210
samples were analysed by a Bruker D8 A25 Advanced
Powder
X
-
ray diffractometer operated at 40kV
211
and 40 mA with monochromatic Cu Kα radiation (=1,5405 Å). This device uses a Bragg
-
Brentano
212
geometry and a sensitive detector LynxEye 1D. Diffractograms were recorded from 4 to 120º of 2θ
213
and steps of 0.015º in 1s and maintained rotation (15/min).
For the clay identification, samples were
214
analysed using the oriented aggregate method by XRD, decanting clay fractions from samples and
215
smearing the slurries in glass slides. After, three treatments were applied including air drying (AO),
216
glycolation with ethylene glycol (AG) and heating at 550 ºC for 2h (AC) with its three different
217
diffractograms.
Finally,
the three diffractograms allows us to corroborate the presence of Illite,
218
Chlorite, Palygorskite and Montmorillonite through Thorez (1976) and USGS Open File procedures.
219
Data collected were
evaluated using the Bruker AXS DIFFRAC.EVA software package (Bruker AXS,
220
Karlsruhe, Germany, 2000) and the Rietveld analyses performed with TOPAS 4.2 program (Bruker AXS,
221
2003
-
2009). A Chebyshev function of level 5 was used to fit the background and abundances of
222
crystalline phases and amorphous phases were normalised to 100 wt
%. Fits were evaluated by visual
223
comparison, the R
wp
(R
-
weighted pattern), R
exp
(R
-
expected), and Goodness
of
Fit (GOF).
224
2.3.3 Mode of occurrence of Fe
225
As XRD is not precise enough for Fe
-
oxide quantification, wet chemistry and sequential extractions of
226
Fe are needed for
quantification of
the Fe mode of occurrence (González
-
Romero et al., 2023
;
2024).
227
Samples were
analysed with
a two
-
step
acid digestion for the total Fe (FeT) content following the
228
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7
procedure by Querol et al. (1993, 1997). A reference material (NIST
-
1633b,
coal fly
ash) was used for
229
quality control in every batch.
The
sequential extraction
presented in
Shi et al. (2009),
Baldo et al.
230
(2020)
and González
-
Romero et al. (2024)
was used to quantify readily exchangeable Fe ions and nano
231
Fe oxides (FeA), the amount of crystalline Fe oxides as goethite and hematite (FeD)
,
and crystallised
232
magnetite (FeM). For the 1st extraction, a 30 mg sample was leached with 10 ml of an ascorbate
233
solution (extractant solution) and shak
en
in dark conditions for 24 h and filtered. Another 30 mg
wa
s
234
leached with 10 ml of a dithionite solution (extractant solution), shak
en
for 2 h in dark conditions and
235
filtered for the 2nd extraction
.
The solid residue was then
leached again in 10 ml of an oxalate solution
236
for 6 h in dark conditions and filtered for the 3rd extraction. The extracted solution of each phase (FeT,
237
FeA, FeD and FeM) was analysed to quantify dissolved Fe by Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic
238
Emission Spectrometry (ICP
-
AES). FeA is obtained with the 1st extraction, FeD is obtained subtracting
239
from
the 2nd extraction the amount of Fe from the 1st extraction
.
Finally,
the
FeM
is related to the
240
3rd extraction. At the end,
the equivalent to the Fe as structural Fe was obtained:
FeS =
FeT
-
FeA
-
241
FeD
-
FeM
which is
included in other minerals and amorphous phase
s. To test accuracy, 30 mg of
242
Arizona Test Dust (ATD; ISO 12103
-
1, A1 Ultrafine Test Dust; Powder Technology Inc.) was subjected
243
to the same extraction procedure in every batch and extraction.
244
The averaged Fe content of the reference material 1633b
was
7.6
±
0.5 % (certified 7.8%).
245
Furthermore, the average values of the sequential Fe extraction of the ATD reference material
were
246
0
.073
±
0.012, 0.47
±
0.01, and 0.042
±
0.002 % for FeA, FeA+FeD and FeM, respectively, while the
247
certified contents are 0.067, 0.48, and 0.047 %, respectively.
248
3. Results
249
3.1. Particle size distribution
250
The PSD and the median particle diameter are key parameters to understand the
251
cohesion/
aggregation state of the sediments (González
-
Romero et al., 2024). In the case of the Mojave
252
D
esert, some basins are enriched in salts, which can cause some artefacts in the FDPSD
, as there can
253
be
removal of the aggregating agents by dissolution during the wet
dispersion for the PSD analysis
.
254
These salt cementation of the crusts might yield very reduced dust emissions.
255
The average PSDs of crusts across different basins exhibit remarkable similarity, yet disparities
256
between FDPSDs and MDPSDs are pronounced, indicating varying degrees of particle cohesion and
257
aggregation at Cronese, Mesquite, Ivanpah and Coyote lakes. In these locations, FDPSDs feature a
258
dominant mode at 8
-
10 μm alongside a coarser mode at 100 μm, while MDPSDs are characterized by
259
a dominant coarser mode (Figure 5). In contrast, Soda Lake crusts, exhibit similarity between FDPSDs
260
and MDPSDs. When comparing averaged FDPSDs and MDPSDs of aeolian ripples from the Mojave
261
Desert, they are found to be similar, typically featuring a major size mode between 100
-
300 μm.
262
However, distinctions
arise
analysing specific lakes. Aeolian ripples from Soda, Cronese, and Coyote
263
lakes showcase a dominant coarse mode at 200
-
300 μm, while those from Mesquite Lake
show
a
264
dominant mode at a finer scale, approximately
at
100 μm (Figure 5).
265
The crusts
’
mean
of all
median
(mean median)
particle diameter
s in the Mojave Desert
reveal a
coarser
266
MDPSD
compared to
FDPSD
, with values of
92 and 37 μm
, respectively. In contrast,
the mean median
267
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particle diameter is
similar for aeolian ripples (226 and 213
μm
, respectively
) (
Table S1).
Analysing
268
specific locations, the mean median particle diameter from the MDPSD of crusts varies, with the finest
269
crust observed
at Ivanpah Lake (35 μm) and the coarsest at Mesquite Lake (141 μm). Concerning
270
FDPSD, the finest crust originates from Coyote Lake (8.4 μm), while the coarsest is from Soda Lake (52
271
μm) (Table S1). Similarly, for aeolian ripples, the mean median
particle
diameters for both MDPSD and
272
FDPSD are finer at Mesquite Lake (167 and 67 μm, respec
tively) and coarser at Cronese l
akes (264 and
273
234 μm, respectively) (Table S1). The high degree of particle aggregation observed in crusts,
274
contrasting with the lower aggregation state in ripples, aligns with findings reported for dust
-
emitting
275
sediments from Morocco by González
-
Romero et al. (2023).
276
The mean median particle diameters of sediments from dust
-
emitting regions in the Mojave Desert
277
are similar to those from the Morocco crusts described by
Gonzá
lez
-
Romero et al. (2023). Specifically,
278
the mean median MDPSD diameter for the Mojave Desert (92
±
74 μm) closely resembles that of the
279
Morocco Draâ Lower basin (113
±
79 μm),
albeit slightly finer, and is notably coarser than that of
280
Iceland (55
±
62 μm) (González
-
Romero et al., 2023, 2024). Furthermore, while the finest crust
281
sampled in the Mojave
Desert
(Ivanpah with 35 μm) is slightly coarser than the finest from Morocco
282
(L’Bour with 20 μm), the differences remain relatively small. For FDPSD, the coarsest crust average
283
median particle diameter is from Iceland (56
±
69 μm), followed by both Morocco and Mojave (37
±
284
77 and 37
±
48 μm, respectively). Additionally, average MDPSD median diameters of aeolian ripples
285
from the Mojave Desert closely resemble those from Morocco (226 and 221 μm, respectively), while
286
those from Iceland are slightly coarser (280 μm).
287
Close to the centre of the Soda Lake, where numerous crust samples were collected, before reaching
288
massive crust cementation by evaporite minerals, the FDPSD median diameter reaches very fine sizes
289
(8
-
15 μm) (Figure S1). In contrast, towards the edges of the basin (closer to the mountains surrounding
290
this endorheic lake), the size markedly increases, ranging from 22 to 87μm (Figure S1). Similar
291
patterns, yet with coarser sizes, are observed for the MDPSD. The fluctuation of the groundwater table
292
in the centre of the basin leads to the massive precipitation of salts, resulting in the formation of
293
compact crusts (Figure 4) that should effectively reduce dust emission. However, at the edges of this
294
central part, where the precipitation of salts is less frequent, and reworking of the crusts by
295
fluctuations in the groundwater occurs, salty and spongy crusts are formed (Figure 4). These spongy
296
crusts, being less compact, are easily broken by saltating particles, potentially leading to frequent high
-
297
salt dust emissions. This particle size segregation, with finer particle diameters towards the centre of
298
the lake, is derived from the transport of sediments from the surrounding mountains to the central
299
part of the lake by runoff waters during rain episodes.
300
3.2. Mineralogy
301
The evaluation of the mineralogy of crusts and aeolian ripples is key
identifying potential
dust source
302
markers in the emitted dust, and
investigating
size fractionation processes
upon transport
into the
303
basins that
may alter
mineral contents
compared
to the background sediment mineralogy.
304
Dust emitting sediments from
the
Mojave
Desert primarily consist
of feldspars (41
±
12 %,
including
305
albite/anorthite and microcline), quartz (22
±
11 %) and clay minerals (18
±
12 %,
such as
kaolinite,
306
montmorillonite
and
illite)
. Additionally,
minor contents of carbonate minerals (6.6
±
6.6 %),
307
amphibole (pargasite)
4.1
±
1.5 %, and
iron oxides (maghemite)
0.77
±
0.54 %
are observed
(Figure
6
,
308
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9
Tables 2 and S2).
Moreover, at Soda, Mesquite and Cronese
l
akes, Na
-
salts such as halite, thenardite,
309
trona, and burkeite are also present, with an average salt content 5.0
±
11 %. Additionally, zeolites
310
(0.77
±
1.1% to 8.5%) including laumontite and analcime are detected at Soda, Cronese, and Coyote
311
l
akes (the southern ones), with the highest content observed at Coyote Lake. Gypsum is found at
312
Mesquite Lake (15
±
29 %) (Figure 6, Tables 2 and S2). Moreover, Mesquite Lake crusts exhibit high
313
contents of dolomite and calcite (15
±
11%) compared to other basins (3.6
±
2.6% to 7.2%) (Table 2).
314
The overall mineral composition of the dust
-
emitting sediments originates primarily from the source
315
rocks prevalent in the region. These include dominant granitic rocks of Mesozoic ages, as well as pre
-
316
Tertiary, Tertiary and Quaternary volcanics, and Pre
-
Cambrian and Mesozoic metamorphic rocks
317
(Figure 1). In the
northern, northeastern, and eastern areas
of the Mesquite Lake, an important
318
limestone and dolostone massif from the Palaeozoic serves as a significant source of sediments (Figure
319
1), contributing to the high content of calcite and dolomite in the sediments of this lake. The presence
320
of zeolites may be attributed to the weathering of volcanic outcrops in the region or to precipitation
321
in alkaline lakes.
322
In comparison to aeolian ripples, the average composition of Mojave
Desert
crusts
show
s slightly
323
enrichment in clay minerals (24
±
11 versus 7.8
±
2.3 % in crust and ripples, respectively), carbonates
324
(6.6
±
6.6 versus 1.1
±
2.2 %), Na
-
salts (7.3
±
13 versus 1.1
±
3.7 %), zeolites (1.2
±
1.9 versus 0.12
±
325
0.52 %) and maghemite (0.92
±
0.59 versus 0.49
±
0.28 %), while being depleted in quartz (16
±
7.2
326
versus 32
±
9.5 %), feldspars (37
±
9.7 versus 48
±
13 %) and gypsum (3.1
±
14 versus 4.7
±
20 %), with
327
similar amphibole content (4.1
±
1.5 versus 4.1
±
1.6 %) (Figure 6, Tables 2 and S2).
328
The results demonstrate that crusts, in all cases,
have a
significant enrichment in clay minerals, Na
-
329
salts, zeolites, and maghemite, while being depleted in quartz and feldspars compared to ripples,
330
except for the anthropogenically disturbed sediments in Mesquite Lake as discussed below (Table 2).
331
In the largest dust hotspot, Soda Lake, the concentration of Na
-
salts in crusts increases towards the
332
inner part of the lake, ranging from 5
-
10 % at the edges to 45
-
50 % in the centre, where compact and
333
fully salt
-
cemented crusts form. This phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 7, which presents a geological
334
and mineralogical cross
-
section of Soda Lake. In addition to the water transport to this central part of
335
the basin during the rain episodes,
ground
water discharge from the Zzyzx mountains occurs. There,
336
the
ground
water table is close to the surface, and the high salinity of the aquifer causes the massive
337
precipitation of Na
-
salts that consolidate the crusts (Figure 4). Cycles of precipitation and dissolution
338
of the salts yield salty spongy crusts (Figure 4) at the edges of these massive crusts, with higher dust
339
emission potential. The very high content of Na
-
salts content in Soda Lake is attributed to the
340
continuous high Na
-
S
-
Cl groundwater supply in the vicinity of Zzyzx, defining Soda Lake as a wet playa
341
lake according to Reynolds et al. (2009). On the other hand, Cronese, Coyote, and Ivanpah are
342
categorized as dry lakes.
343
Mesquite Lake has been significantly disturbed by salt mining activities that were pumping
344
groundwater to separate different salts for economic purposes. This generated very large amounts of
345
gypsum at the surface that is now a major constituent of both dunes and crusts in the exploited area
346
of the basin. Furthermore, piles of worked sediments and residues from the exploitation are an
347
important source of sand and silt for dust emissions. The contents of Na
-
salts (7.5 and 14 % in and 30
348
% outside of the exploitation) and carbonate minerals (<0.1 and 6.9 % in and 12 and 18 % out of the
349
exploitation) in crusts are higher at the edges, while that of gypsum is high at the centre of the
350
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10
exploitation (80 % in and 3.0 to 11 % outside of the exploitation). There, aeolian ripples exhibit a very
351
high content of gypsum, originating from the precipitation of brines from salt exploitation and
352
accumulation in waste piles, which supply gypsum grains for aeolian ripples throughout Mesquite.
353
However, in the less anthropogenically disturbed borders, aeolian ripples also include quartz,
354
feldspars, and clays.
355
Amphiboles in the Mojave Desert, sourced from metamorphic rocks of the area, are homogeneous
356
and can serve as a marker for emitted desert dust in the region. Comparing mineralogy from Mojave
357
Desert crusts to Moroccan surface samples (González
-
Romero et al., 2023), the former are largely
358
enriched in feldspars, clay minerals, Na
-
salts, and gypsum, and depleted in quartz and carbonates,
359
with trace proportions of amphibole, zeolites, and maghemite. Ripples in the Mojave Desert are
360
depleted in quartz and carbonates, enriched in feldspars, clay minerals, Na
-
salts, and gypsum, with
361
traces of amphibole, maghemite, and zeolites compared to Moroccan ripples. The mineralogy of the
362
Mojave Desert is markedly different from that of Iceland, due to differences in bedrock geology,
363
although both contain feldspars, zeolites, and maghemite (González
-
Romero et al., 2024).
364
Particle aggregation of the dust
-
emitting sediments from the Mojave Desert samples, similar to those
365
described by González
-
Romero et al. (2023) for the Moroccan ones, is probably due to clays, Na
-
salts
366
and precipitated carbonates presence. This aggregation inhibits aerodynamic entrainment and dust
367
emission should be mostly controlled by saltation bombardment (Shao et al., 1993). The occurrence
368
of crystalline Fe oxides is limited to maghemite, mainly a weathering product from magnetite, with no
369
hematite, goethite or other Fe oxides were detected by XRD, in contrast to Moroccan crusts (González
-
370
Romero et al., 2023).
371
3.3. Mode of occurrence of Fe
372
The average content of FeT in the Mojave crusts is 3.0
±
1.3 wt %, while for aeolian ripples is 1.9
±
1.1
373
wt %. Among these crusts, 1.8
±
0.92 % of the FeT occurs as FeA, 17
±
7.2 % as FeD, 2.1
±
1.2 as FeM
374
and 79
±
8.5 % as FeS
(Tables 3 and S3). Aeolian ripples have very similar contents and modes of
375
occurrence of Fe across the Mojave Desert.
376
Among the crusts, Ivanpah has the highest FeT content at 4.9
%, followed by Cronese and Coyote
l
akes
377
(3.7
±
1.2
% and 3.5
%, respectively), with Soda Lake showing a similar content (3.1
±
1.2
%). Mesquite
378
has the lowest FeT (1.6
±
0.53 %), probably due to dilution of detrital Fe
-
bearing minerals with salts
379
and gypsum. FeS is the dominant mode of occurrence in most lakes, ranging from 68 % (1 sample) at
380
Ivanpah, to 74
±
3.5 and 74
±
13 % at Mesquite and Cronese, and to 83
±
2.8 and 82 % at Soda and
381
Coyote
l
akes. The FeD is higher at Ivanpah (29 %), Cronese and Mesquite (21
±
11 and 20
±
2.7 %), and
382
lower at Soda and Coyote
l
akes (14
±
2.5 and 14 %). The content of FeM is higher at Mesquite Lake
383
(3.7
±
1.2 %), followed by Cronese and Coyote
l
akes (2.3
±
1.1 and 2.4 %), and Soda (1.5
±
0.49 %) and
384
Ivanpah Lakes (0.82 %). Finally, FeA is higher at Cronese Lake (2.4
±
0.99 %), compared to Coyote,
385
Mesquite, Soda and Ivanpah
l
akes (1.8, 1.8
±
0.93, 1.5
±
0.81 and 1.4 %) (Tables 3 and S3). Crusts are
386
enriched in FeT, FeD and FeA compared to ripples, while ripples are enriched in FeM and FeS (Tables
387
3 and S3).
388
Thus, the bulk Fe content in crusts is driven by structural Fe from clays and amphiboles (as deduced
389
from the high correlation shown in Figure 8a), followed by small proportions of hematite and goethite
390
(not detected by XRD), which are clearly higher at the northern lakes Ivanpah and Mesquite
l
akes,
391
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11
probably due to the Precambrian and Cambrian metamorphic rocks that supply sediments.
392
Furthermore, the easily exchangeable Fe is also driven by clay minerals (Figure 8b).
393
Compared to crusts in other arid regions analysed by González
-
Romero et al. (2023, 2024), Mojave
394
Desert crusts have similar FeT content to Moroccan crusts but are much lower than the Iceland top
395
sediments (3.0
±
1.3, 3.6
±
0.71 and 9.5
±
0.39 %, for Mojave, Morocco, and Iceland respectively). The
396
proportion of FeS in FeT is similar to the Icelandic sediments but higher than Moroccan samples (79
±
397
8.5 and 79
±
6.5 %, and 67
±
2.4, respectively). The proportion of FeM is clearly lower than that of
398
Iceland, but higher than that of Morocco (2.1
±
1.2 and 16
±
5.4 %, for Mojave and Iceland; Morocco
399
proportion is negligible). The FeD proportion is intermediate between Morocco and Iceland (17
±
7.2,
400
31
±
2.3, 3.5
±
1.5 %, respectively), while the FeA
proportion is similar to both Morocco and Iceland
401
crusts (1.8
±
0.92, 1.3
±
0.39 and 1.9
±
0.55 %, respectively) (Figure 9).
402
4
. Conclusions
403
The playa lakes sampled within the Mojave Desert serve as significant dust
-
emitting sources in the
404
region.
Descriptions provided by Urban et al. (2018) and satellite imagery (Figure 2) confirm the
405
presence of d
esert dust emissions originated
from these areas. The lithology, geological/tectonic
406
evolution, and past and current climate conditions collectively contribute to the formation of these
407
dust sources in the Mojave Desert.
408
Dust
-
emitting sediments in this region predominantly stem from substratum rocks, comprising mainly
409
granitic and volcanic formations, along with metamorphic Pre
-
Cambrian, Cambrian, Paleozoic, and
410
Mesozoic rocks. Endorheic basins, shaped by faulting during the Tertiary
-
Quaternary period,
411
accumulated fine sediments through erosion, transportation, and deposition processes. Wetter
412
conditions prevailing during the Pleistocene epoch led to the formation of deep lakes within the
413
basins, which gradually desiccated as the climate evolved. These arid conditions rendered the playa
414
lakes susceptible to dust emission under specific atmospheric conditions. Notably, a particle size
415
segregation is observed, transitioning from coarser sediments in the proximal alluvial areas towards
416
finer particle crusts within the central regions of the lakes. In the playa lakes, finer sediments
417
accumulate towards the center of the lakes
due
to flood events inundating the central areas and
418
ponding, which facilitates the deposition of coarser particles followed by
top
finer sediment sizes.
419
According to the conceptual model depicted in Figure 10, the finer dust particle size distributions
420
(FDPSD) range from 8.4 to 99 μm inside Soda Lake and 46 to 111 μm outside Soda Lake (MDPSD),
421
underscoring this sedimentation process. Comparisons with conceptual models proposed for other
422
regions, such as those by González
-
Romero et al. (2023, 2024) for locations in Morocco and Iceland,
423
reveal a similar transport fractionation phenomenon occurring in the Mojave Desert. These crusts,
424
observed within Soda Lake,
show
enrichment in clay minerals, carbonate minerals, salts, and iron
425
oxides, while experiencing depletion in coarser constituents such as feldspars and quartz.
426
In the Mojave Desert, two distinct types of playa lakes, characterized as wet and dry, are delineated
427
based on the regime of the groundwater table and its interaction with the surface, as discussed by
428
Reynolds et al. (2009) and Goudie (2018). Understanding the groundwater table regime is
429
fundamental
in this region due to its profound influence on the porosity of the crust and its
430
consequential impact on mineralogy, including the precipitation and enrichment of salts (Figure 10).
431
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This dynamic contrasts sharply with other conceptual models, where the relationship between crust
432
formation and the groundwater table is either minimal or absent entirely. For instance, there is no or
433
little relation betw
e
en crusts and groundwater table in Morocco, and in Iceland, the water regime is
434
largely influenced by floodings from glaciers (González
-
Romero et al., 2023, 2024). In wet playa lakes
435
like Soda Lake, the presence of salty crusts, whether massive or spongy, is significantly pronounced.
436
Conversely, in dry playa lakes such as Ivanpah, Coyote, and Cronese, the influence of salt crusts is
437
notably less prominent (see Figure 10). Mesquite Lake serves as a poignant example of an
438
anthropogenically disturbed playa lake, highlighting the importance of monitoring dust changes
439
resulting from human actions in such environments.
440
At Soda Lake, a wet playa, a hard crust, measuring up to 0.5 meters in thickness (Figure 3), forms
441
through the extensive precipitation of Na
-
salts, particularly near the Zzyzx area, where a relatively
442
constant supply of salts is provided by the water table. Along the edges of this massive crusty area,
443
the frequent oscillation of the water table results in the precipitation and dissolution of salts in lower
444
quantities compared to the center, leading to the formation of weaker crusts characterized by high
445
porosity. These porous crusts can contribute to an increased dust emission rate compared to the hard
446
salt crusts found in the center. Dry lakes such as Ivanpah, Cronese, and Coyote do not exhibit the
447
formation of spongy crusts due to the low concentrations of salts.
448
Particle aggregation facilitated by diagenetic salts and carbonate minerals is prevalent in the dust
-
449
emitting sediments of the Mojave Desert, akin to the equivalent sediments found in the Moroccan
450
Sahara. The average grain size of the crusts from both regions is similar, with MDPSD values of 113
±
451
79 μm for Morocco and 92
±
74 μm for the Mojave Desert, and FDPSD values of 37
±
77 μm and 37
±
452
48 μm, respectively. These patterns contrast with the lower aggregation state and finer MDPSD
453
observed in Icelandic dust (55
±
62 μm) (Table 4).
454
In terms of mineralogy, crusts from the Mojave Desert are enriched in feldspars, clay minerals, Na
-
455
salts, and gypsum, whereas crusts from the Moroccan Sahara are enriched in quartz and carbonates
456
(Table 4). The mineralogy of Icelandic top sediments differs due to their volcanic origin; however, both
457
the Mojave Desert and Icelandic top sediments contain similar amounts of zeolites. Salt enrichment
458
in the crusts is primarily attributed to interactions with the groundwater table (Figure 10).
459
The total iron content (FeT) remains consistent throughout the Mojave Desert, with slightly higher
460
levels observed in the Ivanpah crust, albeit diluted by the high salt content in the wet playa lake crusts
461
or the elevated gypsum content in the anthropogenically disturbed Mesquite Lake. While the total Fe
462
content is comparable between the Mojave Desert and Moroccan Sahara crusts (3.0 and 3.6 wt %,
463
respectively), it is substantially lower than in Icelandic top sediments (9.3 wt %). Exchangeable Fe
464
proportions in FeT are similar among the three environments. The proportion of Fe from hematite and
465
goethite in Mojave Desert crusts fall between those of Moroccan Sahara crusts and Icelandic top
466
sediments (17, 31, and 0.5 wt %, respectively). The proportion of magnetite in Mojave Desert crusts
467
is much lower compared to Icelandic top sediments (2.1 and 15 %, respectively). Finally, the
468
proportion of structural Fe in the samples is similar across the three environments.
469
In conclusion, the dust
-
emitting sediments from the Mojave Desert exhibit distinct signatures in
470
mineralogy and Fe mode of occurrence compared to those from the Moroccan Sahara, despite similar
471
particle sizes. These differences can influence emitted dust properties, and associated impacts.
472
Similarities
in
fully disturbed and minimally disturbed
particle size distribution
s
support
comparable
473
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13
dust emission
mechanisms
, with saltation bombardment playing a prominent role.
T
he mineralogy
474
and Fe mode of occurrence of Mojave Desert dust significantly differ from Icelandic dust, potentially
475
resulting in different radiative effects and oceanic and terrestrial fertilization.
476
Code availability.
The Tetracorder
code used in this paper is provided by Clark (2023,
477
https://github.com/PSI
-
edu/spectroscopy
-
tetracorder
).
478
Data availability.
Data used in this paper are given in the main paper itself and in the Supplement. If
479
needed, data are also available upon request by emailing the authors.
480
Author contribution
.
Sample permits were obtained by BLE, RG and AK
. The samples were collected
481
by CPG
-
P, AGR,
AK,
R
G and XQ and analysed by AGR, MHC
and NM.
EMIT mineralogy maps we
482
produced by
RG, PB and R
C
.
PG provided the FoO map.
AGR
analyzed the data and
wr
ote
of the original
483
draft manuscript
supervised by
CPG
-
P and XQ. CPG
-
P and XQ re
-
edited the manuscript and all authors
484
contributed to data discussion, reviewing and manuscript finalization
.
485
Competing interests.
At least one of the (co
-
)authors is a member of the editorial board of
486
Atmospheric chemistry and Physics.
487
Acknowledgements
488
The field campaign and its associated research, including this work, was funded by the European
489
Research Council under the Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme through the ERC
490
Consolidator Grant FRAGMENT (grant agreement No. 773051) and the AXA Research Fund through
491
the AXA Chair on Sand and Dust Storms at BSC.
CGF
was supported by a PhD fellowship from the
492
Agència de Gestió d’Ajuts Universitaris i de Recerca (AGAUR) grant 2020_FI B 00678.
KK
was funded
493
by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation)
–
264907654;
494
416816480.
MK
has received funding through the Helmholtz Association’s Initiative and Networking
495
Fund (grant agreement no. VH
-
NG
-
1533). We acknowledge the EMIT project, which is supported by
496
the NASA Earth Venture Instrument program, under the Earth Science Division of the Science Mission
497
Directorate.
We are grateful to Claire Blaske and Sahil Azad for assistance sampling in the Mojave
498
National Preserve. Samples within the preserve were collected under permit MOJA
-
2022
-
SCI
-
0034.
499
We thank Rose Pettiette at the BLM office in Needles, CA, for advice and allowing sampling on BLM
500
land. We thank
Jason Wallace and Anne Kelly
from
CSU Desert Studies Center at Zzyzx
for their support
501
during the campaign. BLE, RG, and AMK thank the Resnick Sustainability Institute at Caltech for partial
502
support.
Without all of them, the
sampling
campaign would not have been successfully feasible.
503
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