1
Early Online Release:
This preliminary version has been accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
, may be fully cited, and has been
assigned
DOI 10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
The final typeset copyedited article will
replace the EOR at the above DOI when it is published.
© 2024 American Meteorological Society. This is an Author Accepted Manuscript
distributed under the terms of the default AMS reuse license. For information
regarding reuse and general copyright information, consult the AMS Copyright Policy
(www.ametsoc.org/PUBSReuseLicenses).
Future priorities for observing the dynamics of the Southern Ocean
Earle A. Wilson,
a
Lilian A. Dove,
b
Alison R. Gray,
c
Graeme MacGilchrist,
d
Sarah Purkey,
e
Andrew F. Thompson,
f
Madeleine Youngs,
g
Steve Diggs,
h
Dhruv Balwada,
i
Ethan C.
Campbell,
c
and Lynne D. Talley
e
a
Stanford University, Department of Earth System Science, Stanford, CA, USA
b
Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI,
USA
c
School of Oceanography, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
d
School of Earth and Environmental Science, University of St. Andrews, UK
e
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
f
Environmental Sciences and Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA,
USA
g
Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, Los
Angeles, CA, USA
h
University of California, Office of the President
i
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
Corresponding author
: Earle Wilson, earlew@stanford.edu
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC
2
Accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
DOI
10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
ABSTRACT:
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC
3
Accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
DOI
10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
ABSTRACT:
Observing the Dynamics of the Southern Ocean: Present Challenges and Future Strategies
What:
A workshop funded by NSF’s Office of Polar Programs to recommend research and
fieldwork priorities for Southern Ocean physical oceanography.
When:
April 17-19, 2024
Where:
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, San Diego, California with online participation
via Zoom
The Southern Ocean has an outsized influence on the global climate. The region takes up
a disproportionate amount of anthropogenic heat and CO
2
; mediates the transport of heat to the
Antarctic ice sheet that influences ice sheet melt rates; impacts global atmospheric weather patterns
and climate feedbacks; and supports global marine ecosystem via the upwelling and transport of
nutrients (Sarmiento et al. 2004; Fr
̈
olicher et al. 2015; Gruber et al. 2019; Intergovernmental Panel
On Climate Change (IPCC) 2022; Gray 2024). Despite significant scientific and observational
advances over the past few decades, the region’s dynamics remain a major source of uncertainty in
climate projections of global surface warming and sea level rise over the next century. The Southern
Ocean also remains sparsely sampled, especially during the winter months in regions covered by
sea ice. With the recent downsizing of the icebreaker fleet operated by the U.S. Antarctic Program
(USAP), there is heightened urgency for the Southern Ocean research community to prioritize its
scientific objectives and future observational needs.
To address these challenges, an NSF-funded workshop was held on April 17-19, 2024, at
the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Attendees were tasked to highlight recent advances
in Southern Ocean physical oceanographic research, identify key knowledge gaps, and outline
an ambitious but achievable set of research and observational priorities for the coming years.
The workshop included three science sessions focused on: (i) the open Southern Ocean, (ii) the
seasonal sea ice zone, and (iii) the Antarctic continental shelf. Additional sessions addressed equity,
diversity, and inclusion (EDI) in fieldwork, as well as data management. Each session featured
presentations and breakout discussions to gather input on key scientific goals and observational
strategies. There were approximately 60 participants, including over 20 virtual attendees.
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC
4
Accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
DOI
10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
Fig.
1. A visual summary of the workshop’s outcomes. Further details are provided in the text.
Key outcomes and perspectives
a. Research priorities
Workshop attendees agreed on the following high-priority research objectives for the next 5-10
years:
1.
Constrain the magnitude and spatiotemporal variability of ice shelf melt rates to reduce
uncertainty in global sea level rise projections over the next century.
The ocean circula-
tion along the Antarctic margins delivers heat to ice shelves, impacting melt rates and global
sea level rise (Pritchard et al. 2012; Thompson et al. 2018). While satellite measurements
have provided valuable constraints on ice shelf mass loss, the ocean processes impacting sea
level rise outcomes are poorly observed. A major research priority is observing the sea-
sonal variations in ocean heat content and transport, which necessitates full-depth wintertime
measurements over the continental shelf that are currently lacking. In addition to closing
the on-shelf heat and freshwater budgets, it is necessary to understand how inter-shelf-sea
exchange influences the ocean’s circulation, stratification, and heat content variations over
inter-annual to decadal scales. Key choke points, such as the boundary between the Amund-
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC
5
Accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
DOI
10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
Fig.
1. A visual summary of the workshop’s outcomes. Further details are provided in the text.
Key outcomes and perspectives
a. Research priorities
Workshop attendees agreed on the following high-priority research objectives for the next 5-10
years:
1.
Constrain the magnitude and spatiotemporal variability of ice shelf melt rates to reduce
uncertainty in global sea level rise projections over the next century.
The ocean circula-
tion along the Antarctic margins delivers heat to ice shelves, impacting melt rates and global
sea level rise (Pritchard et al. 2012; Thompson et al. 2018). While satellite measurements
have provided valuable constraints on ice shelf mass loss, the ocean processes impacting sea
level rise outcomes are poorly observed. A major research priority is observing the sea-
sonal variations in ocean heat content and transport, which necessitates full-depth wintertime
measurements over the continental shelf that are currently lacking. In addition to closing
the on-shelf heat and freshwater budgets, it is necessary to understand how inter-shelf-sea
exchange influences the ocean’s circulation, stratification, and heat content variations over
inter-annual to decadal scales. Key choke points, such as the boundary between the Amund-
sen and Ross Seas, are identified as critical areas for studying boundary current interactions.
Additionally, the potential for hydrographic changes caused by ice-shelf melt in West Antarc-
tica to propagate westward and affect the melting of the East Antarctica Ice Sheet is an open
question. Studying these along-shelf interactions will require more measurements from the
sparsely observed shelf seas in front of Wilkes Basin, East Antarctica. Given the inherently
coupled dynamics governing the Antarctic Ice Sheet mass balance, attendees recommend
increasing collaborations between the oceanography, glaciology, and atmospheric science
communities.
2.
Develop a mechanistic understanding of sea ice variability on interannual to decadal
timescales and its broader impacts on the regional climate.
Antarctic sea ice is a crucial
intermediary between the open Southern Ocean and the Antarctic margins. The growth, drift,
and melt of sea ice play a key role in the region’s dynamics, influencing—and being influenced
by—oceanic and atmospheric circulation, as well as biogeochemical processes and ecosystem
dynamics (Massom and Stammerjohn 2010; Hobbs et al. 2016). Over the past decade, there
has been tremendous progress in observing the Antarctic sea ice zone. Recent advances in
satellite capabilities and data processing have provided an emerging view of Antarctic sea
ice thickness and its overlying snow depth, although validation of remote sensing estimates
with
in situ
observations remains sparse (Maksym and Markus 2008; Kacimi and Kwok
2020). Significant gaps remain in the under-ice ocean observational network, which have
been exposed by the unexpected and poorly understood dramatic decline in Antarctic sea ice
extent in recent years (Purich and Doddridge 2023; Wang et al. 2024).
Workshop attendees emphasized the need for a more robust, mechanistic understanding of
the variability of sea ice extent, thickness, and motion on seasonal to decadal timescales.
Additionally, there is growing appreciation for the importance of small-scale ocean processes,
including turbulent mixing under ice and heat transport by submesoscale currents, particularly
near the sea ice edge; wave-ice interactions; and the impact of intermittent, high-intensity
atmospheric storms in setting large-scale sea ice properties. There is also a need to better
constrain how sea ice impacts other components of the Earth system, such as ocean water
mass transformation rates, local ecosystem dynamics, and air-sea gas exchange.
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC
6
Accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
DOI
10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
3.
Improve our understanding of how zonal variations and submesoscale currents influence
the Southern Ocean’s overturning and transport pathways
The open Southern Ocean, ex-
tending from the Antarctic shelf break to more northern ice free latitudes, plays a central role
in modulating climate variability through its influence on ocean-atmosphere exchange. Recent
studies have highlighted the importance of small-scale turbulence and zonal asymmetries of
the Southern Ocean’s three-dimensional circulation, particularly its standing meanders and
localized regions of intense eddy activity, in modulating the zonally integrated meridional
overturning circulation (Tamsitt et al. 2017; Dove et al. 2021; Youngs and Flierl 2023; Hague
et al. 2024). These insights have been derived from limited
in-situ
observations from ships
and autonomous instruments, data-assimilating numerical simulations, and theoretical frame-
works. Future research efforts should clarify the mechanisms governing zonal asymmetries
in the regional circulation and small-scale mixing in ocean’s surface boundary layer, elucidate
how these dynamics impact coupled climate dynamics, and evaluate and improve their repre-
sentation in climate models. A related priority is improving our understanding of how ocean
turbulence and air-sea exchange at small scales (
<
100km), during high-frequency events (
e.g.
,
storms), determine ocean ventilation rates.
b. Observational priorities
To achieve these research objectives, workshop attendees identified the following fieldwork
priorities for the Southern Ocean:
1.
Maintain and expand the existing distributed sampling network to ensure sustained
monitoring of key ocean state properties and fluxes.
With the downsizing of USAP’s
icebreaker fleet, the community stresses the need for autonomous platforms that provide year-
round subsurface measurements across the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) and sea ice
covered Southern Ocean, such as those provided by the OneArgo Array (core, BGC, and Deep
Argo) and CTD-tagged seals. There is strong support for continuing long-term surveys, like
Palmer Long-term Ecological Research (LTER) and decadal hydrographic transects, which
provide a localized and rich view of ocean dynamics and biogeochemical processes. These
long-term surveys are also essential for calibrating autonomous sensors. Attendees expressed
enthusiasm for launching a new long-term survey in the Ross Sea Marine Protected Area
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC
7
Accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
DOI
10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
3.
Improve our understanding of how zonal variations and submesoscale currents influence
the Southern Ocean’s overturning and transport pathways
The open Southern Ocean, ex-
tending from the Antarctic shelf break to more northern ice free latitudes, plays a central role
in modulating climate variability through its influence on ocean-atmosphere exchange. Recent
studies have highlighted the importance of small-scale turbulence and zonal asymmetries of
the Southern Ocean’s three-dimensional circulation, particularly its standing meanders and
localized regions of intense eddy activity, in modulating the zonally integrated meridional
overturning circulation (Tamsitt et al. 2017; Dove et al. 2021; Youngs and Flierl 2023; Hague
et al. 2024). These insights have been derived from limited
in-situ
observations from ships
and autonomous instruments, data-assimilating numerical simulations, and theoretical frame-
works. Future research efforts should clarify the mechanisms governing zonal asymmetries
in the regional circulation and small-scale mixing in ocean’s surface boundary layer, elucidate
how these dynamics impact coupled climate dynamics, and evaluate and improve their repre-
sentation in climate models. A related priority is improving our understanding of how ocean
turbulence and air-sea exchange at small scales (
<
100km), during high-frequency events (
e.g.
,
storms), determine ocean ventilation rates.
b. Observational priorities
To achieve these research objectives, workshop attendees identified the following fieldwork
priorities for the Southern Ocean:
1.
Maintain and expand the existing distributed sampling network to ensure sustained
monitoring of key ocean state properties and fluxes.
With the downsizing of USAP’s
icebreaker fleet, the community stresses the need for autonomous platforms that provide year-
round subsurface measurements across the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) and sea ice
covered Southern Ocean, such as those provided by the OneArgo Array (core, BGC, and Deep
Argo) and CTD-tagged seals. There is strong support for continuing long-term surveys, like
Palmer Long-term Ecological Research (LTER) and decadal hydrographic transects, which
provide a localized and rich view of ocean dynamics and biogeochemical processes. These
long-term surveys are also essential for calibrating autonomous sensors. Attendees expressed
enthusiasm for launching a new long-term survey in the Ross Sea Marine Protected Area
(MPA) as well as expanding the network of profiling floats along the Antarctic continental
shelf. There is also a strong need for expanding bathymetric surveys on the continental
shelf, which is crucial for constraining model-based estimates of ocean heat transport to the
Antarctic Ice Sheet.
2.
Execute collaborative, targeted field campaigns to constrain key physical processes.
Attendees emphasized an urgent need for integrative, process-based field campaigns that
synchronize with other international efforts (
e.g.
, Antarctica InSync; https://www.antarctica-
insync.org/) and simultaneously tackle multiple scientific questions. In particular, workshop
attendees recommend prioritizing studies that constrain:
i)
Cross-shelf ocean heat and freshwater fluxes along the continental shelf on daily
to seasonal timescales, specifically near ice shelf fronts and across the continental
slope.
This effort would extend previous work that has focused on heat and freshwater
content, a measure of the ocean’s state, to quantify the flux or rate of spatial transport of
these quantities. Two key locations were suggested for this type of study: (i) across the
face of one or more ice shelf cavities and (ii) along a cross-shelf transect that captures key
boundary currents at the coast, shelf break and potentially over the continental slope (
e.g.
,
southern boundary of the Ross Gyre). A major priority is to combine
in situ
observations
with altimetry (
e.g.
, SWOT and ICESat-2) and other remote sensing measurements to
monitor heat transport. We advocate for future focused, collaborative efforts between
NASA and NSF to constrain ocean-ice dynamics for the Antarctic margins.
ii)
The three-dimensional evolution of sea ice and its interaction with the oceanic eddy
field, with an emphasis on vertical thermodynamic processes across the air-snow-
ice-ocean interface.
Such a study would make comprehensive measurements of the
atmosphere-ice-ocean system across a range of spatial scales, from centimeter-scale
upper ocean turbulence to the mesoscale dynamics on the order of tens of kilometers.
The SASSIE and MOSAiC field expeditions within the Arctic Ocean seasonal ice zone
provide examples of what could be accomplished by combining remotely sensed obser-
vations with an intensive, ship-based campaign (Drushka et al. 2024; Rabe et al. 2022).
Attendees additionally envisioned a more limited but valuable study utilizing distributed
autonomous platforms to facilitate the concurrent measurement of meteorological con-
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC
8
Accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
DOI
10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
ditions, sea ice and snow properties, and the ocean state across the ice edge and into the
main ice pack. The group expressed interest in a collaborative NSF-NASA effort that
could support the validation of sea ice and snow remote sensing capabilities.
iii)
The role of zonal asymmetries in the ACC and submesoscale processes on setting
the structure of the Southern Ocean overturning circulation
. The group discussed a
field campaign analogous to the Ocean Surface Mixing, Ocean Submesoscale Interaction
Study (OSMOSIS) conducted in the North Atlantic (Buckingham et al. 2016; Erickson
and Thompson 2018; Thompson et al. 2016; Yu et al. 2019). Among several possible
target regions, the group highlighted the Pacific sector of the ACC as particularly oppor-
tune since it features standing meanders that eventually diverge to influence the Antarctic
margins along the Ross and Amundsen Seas further downstream (Prend et al. 2024). The
imagined field campaign would include moorings and gliders in conjunction with floats
and satellite observations.
In situ
assets would be maintained over multiple seasons of
multiple years to capture how upper ocean turbulence and overturning circulation evolve
under different atmospheric conditions. Though executing a field project of this scale
in the Southern Ocean will inevitably be challenging, past field campaigns, such as the
DIMES project, demonstrate the viability of an intensive multi-year regional study of
the ACC (Gille et al. 2012; Sheen et al. 2013).
3.
Support technological developments and infrastructure to advance our understanding
of ice-ocean interactions.
While many of the proposed field priorities are feasible, the
group identified several observational limitations and recommended prioritizing technological
developments to achieve the following scientific objectives:
i)
Autonomous measurements of the drifting Antarctic sea ice pack and underlying
ocean.
Few, if any, autonomous platforms provide direct estimates of sea ice proper-
ties, such as its thickness, snow cover, and vertical temperature profile, concurrent with
measurements of the ocean state below. While platforms such as ice-tethered profilers
and ice mass balance buoys have been widely deployed in the Arctic to great effect, de-
ployments in the Southern Ocean are rare. This is in part due to the region’s remoteness
and the lower fraction of perennial sea ice to anchor these relatively expensive instru-
ments. Thus, the community urges the development of affordable, resilient, and buoyant
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC
9
Accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
DOI
10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
ditions, sea ice and snow properties, and the ocean state across the ice edge and into the
main ice pack. The group expressed interest in a collaborative NSF-NASA effort that
could support the validation of sea ice and snow remote sensing capabilities.
iii)
The role of zonal asymmetries in the ACC and submesoscale processes on setting
the structure of the Southern Ocean overturning circulation
. The group discussed a
field campaign analogous to the Ocean Surface Mixing, Ocean Submesoscale Interaction
Study (OSMOSIS) conducted in the North Atlantic (Buckingham et al. 2016; Erickson
and Thompson 2018; Thompson et al. 2016; Yu et al. 2019). Among several possible
target regions, the group highlighted the Pacific sector of the ACC as particularly oppor-
tune since it features standing meanders that eventually diverge to influence the Antarctic
margins along the Ross and Amundsen Seas further downstream (Prend et al. 2024). The
imagined field campaign would include moorings and gliders in conjunction with floats
and satellite observations.
In situ
assets would be maintained over multiple seasons of
multiple years to capture how upper ocean turbulence and overturning circulation evolve
under different atmospheric conditions. Though executing a field project of this scale
in the Southern Ocean will inevitably be challenging, past field campaigns, such as the
DIMES project, demonstrate the viability of an intensive multi-year regional study of
the ACC (Gille et al. 2012; Sheen et al. 2013).
3.
Support technological developments and infrastructure to advance our understanding
of ice-ocean interactions.
While many of the proposed field priorities are feasible, the
group identified several observational limitations and recommended prioritizing technological
developments to achieve the following scientific objectives:
i)
Autonomous measurements of the drifting Antarctic sea ice pack and underlying
ocean.
Few, if any, autonomous platforms provide direct estimates of sea ice proper-
ties, such as its thickness, snow cover, and vertical temperature profile, concurrent with
measurements of the ocean state below. While platforms such as ice-tethered profilers
and ice mass balance buoys have been widely deployed in the Arctic to great effect, de-
ployments in the Southern Ocean are rare. This is in part due to the region’s remoteness
and the lower fraction of perennial sea ice to anchor these relatively expensive instru-
ments. Thus, the community urges the development of affordable, resilient, and buoyant
autonomous drifting platforms that can be frozen into the Antarctic sea ice pack, can
continue measurements after ice melts, and could be deployed on a large scale. A model
for such a platform is the UpTempO ocean temperature buoy that has been successfully
deployed in the Arctic and, in a more limited capacity, the Southern Ocean (Castro et al.
2016).
ii)
Hydrographic surveys within ice shelf cavities.
Sustained under-ice shelf measure-
ments, throughout an ice shelf cavity, especially near the grounding zone, were seen
as an extremely high priority and a critical step for constraining melt rates and future
sea-level change. The group perceived that technology capabilities were a bottleneck
at this stage and that future discussion is needed to identify how funding agencies can
most effectively support both U.S. development of these new technologies as well as
collaborations with other countries that are advancing this issue.
iii)
Large-scale deployment of profiling floats along the Antarctic continental shelf.
Workshop attendees were supportive of an Argo-like effort, with coordinated interac-
tions between different national Antarctic programs, to seed the continental shelves with
profiling floats. These floats would periodically ground and would have adaptive sam-
pling capabilities to avoid sea ice and icebergs, as are implemented on sea-ice zone
profiling Argo floats. The shelf floats would provide critical winter-time measurements
of shelf heat and freshwater content, even without precise positioning. Such an approach
has recently been implemented on the Ross Sea continental shelf by the SOCCOM pro-
gram (Cao et al. 2024), based on an earlier, serendipitous grounding of Argo floats in the
same region (Porter et al. 2019). This approach has the benefit of being relatively inex-
pensive and straightforward to implement collaboratively with other Antarctic programs
in an environment with limited ship resources.
c. Community needs
Attendees highlighted several policies and community practices that lead to inequitable distri-
bution of fieldwork opportunities and the benefits derived from the collected data. The group
proposed the following actionable priorities for NSF and the Southern Ocean research community
at large:
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC
10
Accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
DOI
10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
1.
Review the physical qualification process for USAP-supported fieldwork and increase
transparency on factors that lead to medical exclusions.
Attendees expressed concerns
about the NSF Physical Qualification (PQ) process, which many found to be burdensome and
opaque. The current PQ process makes little distinction between different types of fieldwork
(
e.g.
, remote fieldwork with limited access to professional medical assistance versus a short
summertime stay at a well-equipped Antarctic field station). The lack of transparency in the
PQ process as well as its short turnaround time could undermine the community’s trust in
this system. The community also emphasizes the need for more transparent health standards
so that researchers are aware of the health requirements to participate in Southern Ocean
fieldwork.
2.
Increase funding for community-based organizations that promote EDI principles and
provide support for researchers from underrepresented groups in the polar sciences.
The complex logistics and expensive nature of Antarctic and marine research present a barrier
to participation in polar marine science. Sexual, racial, and homophobic harassment aboard
USAP vessels remain pressing concerns, especially for students and early career researchers
(Nash 2021). Attendees acknowledged the positive efforts led the NSF-supported Polar
Science Early Career Community Office (PSECCO) and urge expanded financial support for
grassroots community groups (
e.g.
, Accessibility in Polar Research and Polar Impact) that
facilitate community-building, mentorship, outreach and skills training for under-represented
and under-resourced groups in the polar sciences.
3.
Implement and enforce data standardization and protocols to ensure that all Antarctic
programs conform to Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable (FAIR) princi-
ples.
Given the multitude of challenges around obtaining polar data, it is necessary to make
these data accessible to the scientific community for equitable outcomes. Data reuse is a
current priority of the NSF Office of Polar Programs but it is only possible when data are
archived in searchable repositories and are interoperable, meaning they are stored in common
data formats (
e.g.
, netCDF files) with the appropriate metadata. Any information about quality
control or complementary datasets should also be documented and made available alongside
the data.
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC
11
Accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
DOI
10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
1.
Review the physical qualification process for USAP-supported fieldwork and increase
transparency on factors that lead to medical exclusions.
Attendees expressed concerns
about the NSF Physical Qualification (PQ) process, which many found to be burdensome and
opaque. The current PQ process makes little distinction between different types of fieldwork
(
e.g.
, remote fieldwork with limited access to professional medical assistance versus a short
summertime stay at a well-equipped Antarctic field station). The lack of transparency in the
PQ process as well as its short turnaround time could undermine the community’s trust in
this system. The community also emphasizes the need for more transparent health standards
so that researchers are aware of the health requirements to participate in Southern Ocean
fieldwork.
2.
Increase funding for community-based organizations that promote EDI principles and
provide support for researchers from underrepresented groups in the polar sciences.
The complex logistics and expensive nature of Antarctic and marine research present a barrier
to participation in polar marine science. Sexual, racial, and homophobic harassment aboard
USAP vessels remain pressing concerns, especially for students and early career researchers
(Nash 2021). Attendees acknowledged the positive efforts led the NSF-supported Polar
Science Early Career Community Office (PSECCO) and urge expanded financial support for
grassroots community groups (
e.g.
, Accessibility in Polar Research and Polar Impact) that
facilitate community-building, mentorship, outreach and skills training for under-represented
and under-resourced groups in the polar sciences.
3.
Implement and enforce data standardization and protocols to ensure that all Antarctic
programs conform to Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable (FAIR) princi-
ples.
Given the multitude of challenges around obtaining polar data, it is necessary to make
these data accessible to the scientific community for equitable outcomes. Data reuse is a
current priority of the NSF Office of Polar Programs but it is only possible when data are
archived in searchable repositories and are interoperable, meaning they are stored in common
data formats (
e.g.
, netCDF files) with the appropriate metadata. Any information about quality
control or complementary datasets should also be documented and made available alongside
the data.
4.
Increase funding for data management personnel and infrastructure
While established
programs such as Argo, GO-SHIP, and SOCCOM have well-documented and robust data
collection and accessibility protocols, standards for smaller programs and individual PI-led
efforts vary widely. Data management is often labor-intensive and thus needs explicit funding
support to ensure that acceptable standards are met. Improving these inconsistencies will
enhance information discoverability, foster more integrative research studies (
e.g.
, validation
of climate models), and streamline operational endeavors.
5.
Streamline and promote international collaboration, both at the individual PI and agency
levels.
Despite immense interest in international collaborations, funding schemes and admin-
istrative barriers for such collaborations are often prohibitively complex. One potentially
effective solution is expanding NSF’s Lead Agency Opportunity (LAO) program, which pro-
vides a pathway for proposers from the U.S. and select countries to submit a joint proposal
that will undergo a single review by the lead science agency. The U.S.-based Southern Ocean
research community would benefit from enhanced collaboration with other countries with
Antarctic seagoing programs, such as South Korea, Australia, South Africa, and Japan.
Conclusions
Given the current resource limitations within the NSF and USAP, the Southern Ocean research
community in the U.S., as represented by workshop attendees, realizes the need to leverage precious
ship resources. The community prioritizes continued monitoring of
in situ
ocean properties through
autonomous platforms and collaborative field studies aligned with international efforts. Attendees
also see the potential for significant advances in understanding ocean-ice interactions through the
combined analysis of remotely-sensed data products and
in situ
observations as well as dedicated
collaborative NASA-NSF field campaigns. Fully leveraging these data requires a transformative
approach to data management. Funding agencies must increase their investment in tools and
personnel to ensure timely archiving and accessibility of data for the broader research community.
Lastly, the community calls for greater transparency in the NSF Physical Qualification process,
which restricts the pool of qualified researchers who can participate in field campaigns. We hope
the dissemination of these proceedings will encourage further dialogue and stimulate coordinated
efforts to advance our understanding of this critical component of our global climate.
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC
12
Accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
DOI
10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
Acknowledgments.
We thank all workshop attendees whose comments and ideas formed the basis
of this report. We are especially grateful to the workshop’s invited speakers, Mariama Dry
́
ak-
Vallies, Jamin Greenbaum, Lydi Keppler, Carlos Moffat, and Sharon Stammerjohn for providing
insightful presentations that helped to frame our discussions. We thank Andrew Hennig for
verifying the accuracy of this report. This workshop was funded by the NSF Office of Polar
Programs under grant 2309312.
Data availability statement.
Further details about the workshop and complete schedule of the
meeting can be accessed here: https://sites.google.com/ucsd.edu/soworkshop2024/home.
References
Buckingham, C. E., and Coauthors, 2016: Seasonality of submesoscale flows in the ocean surface
boundary layer.
Geophysical Research Letters
,
43 (5)
, 2118–2126, https://doi.org/https://doi.
org/10.1002/2016GL068009.
Cao, R., W. Smith, Y. Zhong, S. C. Riser, K. Johnson, and L. D. Talley, 2024: The Seasonal
Patterns of Hydrographic and Biological Seasonal Patterns in the Ross Sea: A BGC-Argo
Analysis.
Deep-Sea Research II
,
in press
.
Castro, S. L., G. A. Wick, and M. Steele, 2016: Validation of satellite sea surface temperature
analyses in the Beaufort Sea using UpTempO buoys.
Remote Sensing of Environment
,
187
,
458–475, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2016.10.035.
Dove, L. A., A. F. Thompson, D. Balwada, and A. R. Gray, 2021: Observational Evidence of
Ventilation Hotspots in the Southern Ocean.
Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
,
126 (7)
,
e2021JC017 178, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JC017178.
Drushka, K., and Coauthors, 2024: Salinity and Stratification at the Sea Ice Edge (SASSIE): an
oceanographic field campaign in the Beaufort Sea.
Earth System Science Data
,
16 (9)
, 4209–
4242, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4209-2024.
Erickson, Z. K., and A. F. Thompson, 2018: The Seasonality of Physically Driven Export at
Submesoscales in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean.
Global Biogeochemical Cycles
,
32 (8)
, 1144–
1162, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GB005927.
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC
13
Accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
DOI
10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
Acknowledgments.
We thank all workshop attendees whose comments and ideas formed the basis
of this report. We are especially grateful to the workshop’s invited speakers, Mariama Dry
́
ak-
Vallies, Jamin Greenbaum, Lydi Keppler, Carlos Moffat, and Sharon Stammerjohn for providing
insightful presentations that helped to frame our discussions. We thank Andrew Hennig for
verifying the accuracy of this report. This workshop was funded by the NSF Office of Polar
Programs under grant 2309312.
Data availability statement.
Further details about the workshop and complete schedule of the
meeting can be accessed here: https://sites.google.com/ucsd.edu/soworkshop2024/home.
References
Buckingham, C. E., and Coauthors, 2016: Seasonality of submesoscale flows in the ocean surface
boundary layer.
Geophysical Research Letters
,
43 (5)
, 2118–2126, https://doi.org/https://doi.
org/10.1002/2016GL068009.
Cao, R., W. Smith, Y. Zhong, S. C. Riser, K. Johnson, and L. D. Talley, 2024: The Seasonal
Patterns of Hydrographic and Biological Seasonal Patterns in the Ross Sea: A BGC-Argo
Analysis.
Deep-Sea Research II
,
in press
.
Castro, S. L., G. A. Wick, and M. Steele, 2016: Validation of satellite sea surface temperature
analyses in the Beaufort Sea using UpTempO buoys.
Remote Sensing of Environment
,
187
,
458–475, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2016.10.035.
Dove, L. A., A. F. Thompson, D. Balwada, and A. R. Gray, 2021: Observational Evidence of
Ventilation Hotspots in the Southern Ocean.
Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
,
126 (7)
,
e2021JC017 178, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JC017178.
Drushka, K., and Coauthors, 2024: Salinity and Stratification at the Sea Ice Edge (SASSIE): an
oceanographic field campaign in the Beaufort Sea.
Earth System Science Data
,
16 (9)
, 4209–
4242, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4209-2024.
Erickson, Z. K., and A. F. Thompson, 2018: The Seasonality of Physically Driven Export at
Submesoscales in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean.
Global Biogeochemical Cycles
,
32 (8)
, 1144–
1162, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GB005927.
Fr
̈
olicher, T. L., J. L. Sarmiento, D. J. Paynter, J. P. Dunne, J. P. Krasting, and M. Winton, 2015:
Dominance of the Southern Ocean in Anthropogenic Carbon and Heat Uptake in CMIP5 Models.
Journal of Climate
,
28 (2)
, 862–886, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00117.1.
Gille, S., and Coauthors, 2012: The Diapycnal and Isopycnal Mixing Experiment: A First Assess-
ment.
CLIVAR Exchanges
,
17 (58)
, 46–48.
Gray, A. R., 2024: The four-dimensional carbon cycle of the southern ocean.
Annual Review of
Marine Science
,
16
, 163–190, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-041923-104057.
Gruber, N., P. Landsch ̈utzer, and N. S. Lovenduski, 2019: The Variable Southern Ocean
Carbon Sink.
Annual Review of Marine Science
,
11 (1)
, 159–186, https://doi.org/10.1146/
annurev-marine-121916-063407.
Hague, M., M. M ̈unnich, and N. Gruber, 2024: Zonally Asymmetric Increase in Southern Ocean
Heat Content.
Journal of Climate
, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-23-0623.1.
Hobbs, W. R., R. Massom, S. Stammerjohn, P. Reid, G. Williams, and W. Meier, 2016: A review
of recent changes in Southern Ocean sea ice, their drivers and forcings.
Global and Planetary
Change
,
143
, 228–250, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2016.06.008.
Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change (IPCC), 2022:
The Ocean and Cryosphere in a
Changing Climate: Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
. 1st ed.,
Cambridge University Press, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.
Kacimi, S., and R. Kwok, 2020: The Antarctic sea ice cover from ICESat-2 and CryoSat-2:
freeboard, snow depth, and ice thickness.
The Cryosphere
,
14 (12)
, 4453–4474, https://doi.org/
10.5194/tc-14-4453-2020.
Maksym, T., and T. Markus, 2008: Antarctic sea ice thickness and snow-to-ice conversion from
atmospheric reanalysis and passive microwave snow depth.
Journal of Geophysical Research:
Oceans
,
113 (C2)
, 2006JC004 085, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JC004085.
Massom, R. A., and S. E. Stammerjohn, 2010: Antarctic sea ice change and variability – Physical
and ecological implications.
Polar Science
,
4 (2)
, 149–186, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2010.
05.001.
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC
14
Accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
DOI
10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
Nash, M., 2021: National Antarctic Program responses to fieldwork sexual harassment.
Antarctic
Science
,
33 (5)
, 560–571, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954102021000432.
Porter, D. F., S. R. Springer, L. Padman, H. A. Fricker, K. J. Tinto, S. C. Riser, R. E. Bell, and
the ROSETTA-Ice Team, 2019: Evolution of the Seasonal Surface Mixed Layer of the Ross
Sea, Antarctica, Observed With Autonomous Profiling Floats.
Journal of Geophysical Research:
Oceans
,
124 (7)
, 4934–4953, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JC014683.
Prend, C. J., and Coauthors, 2024: Ross Gyre variability modulates oceanic heat supply toward the
West Antarctic continental shelf.
Communications Earth & Environment
,
5
, 47, https://doi.org/
10.1038/s43247-024-01207-y.
Pritchard, H. D., S. R. M. Ligtenberg, H. A. Fricker, D. G. Vaughan, M. R. Van Den Broeke,
and L. Padman, 2012: Antarctic ice-sheet loss driven by basal melting of ice shelves.
Nature
,
484 (7395)
, 502–505, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10968.
Purich, A., and E. W. Doddridge, 2023: Record low Antarctic sea ice coverage indi-
cates a new sea ice state.
Communications Earth & Environment
,
4
, 314, https://doi.org/
10.1038/s43247-023-00961-9.
Rabe, B., and Coauthors, 2022: Overview of the MOSAiC expedition: Physical oceanography.
Elem Sci Anth
,
10 (1)
, 00 062, https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.2021.00062.
Sarmiento, J. L., N. Gruber, M. A. Brzezinski, and J. P. Dunne, 2004: High-latitude controls
of thermocline nutrients and low latitude biological productivity.
Nature
,
427 (6969)
, 56–60,
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02127.
Sheen, K. L., and Coauthors, 2013: Rates and mechanisms of turbulent dissipation and mixing
in the Southern Ocean: Results from the Diapycnal and Isopycnal Mixing Experiment in the
Southern Ocean (DIMES).
Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
,
118 (6)
, 2774–2792,
https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrc.20217.
Tamsitt, V., and Coauthors, 2017: Spiraling pathways of global deep waters to the sur-
face of the Southern Ocean.
Nature Communications
,
8 (1)
, 172, https://doi.org/10.1038/
s41467-017-00197-0.
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC
15
Accepted for publication in
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
DOI
10.1175/BAMS-D-24-0254.1.
Nash, M., 2021: National Antarctic Program responses to fieldwork sexual harassment.
Antarctic
Science
,
33 (5)
, 560–571, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954102021000432.
Porter, D. F., S. R. Springer, L. Padman, H. A. Fricker, K. J. Tinto, S. C. Riser, R. E. Bell, and
the ROSETTA-Ice Team, 2019: Evolution of the Seasonal Surface Mixed Layer of the Ross
Sea, Antarctica, Observed With Autonomous Profiling Floats.
Journal of Geophysical Research:
Oceans
,
124 (7)
, 4934–4953, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JC014683.
Prend, C. J., and Coauthors, 2024: Ross Gyre variability modulates oceanic heat supply toward the
West Antarctic continental shelf.
Communications Earth & Environment
,
5
, 47, https://doi.org/
10.1038/s43247-024-01207-y.
Pritchard, H. D., S. R. M. Ligtenberg, H. A. Fricker, D. G. Vaughan, M. R. Van Den Broeke,
and L. Padman, 2012: Antarctic ice-sheet loss driven by basal melting of ice shelves.
Nature
,
484 (7395)
, 502–505, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10968.
Purich, A., and E. W. Doddridge, 2023: Record low Antarctic sea ice coverage indi-
cates a new sea ice state.
Communications Earth & Environment
,
4
, 314, https://doi.org/
10.1038/s43247-023-00961-9.
Rabe, B., and Coauthors, 2022: Overview of the MOSAiC expedition: Physical oceanography.
Elem Sci Anth
,
10 (1)
, 00 062, https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.2021.00062.
Sarmiento, J. L., N. Gruber, M. A. Brzezinski, and J. P. Dunne, 2004: High-latitude controls
of thermocline nutrients and low latitude biological productivity.
Nature
,
427 (6969)
, 56–60,
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02127.
Sheen, K. L., and Coauthors, 2013: Rates and mechanisms of turbulent dissipation and mixing
in the Southern Ocean: Results from the Diapycnal and Isopycnal Mixing Experiment in the
Southern Ocean (DIMES).
Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
,
118 (6)
, 2774–2792,
https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrc.20217.
Tamsitt, V., and Coauthors, 2017: Spiraling pathways of global deep waters to the sur-
face of the Southern Ocean.
Nature Communications
,
8 (1)
, 172, https://doi.org/10.1038/
s41467-017-00197-0.
Thompson, A. F., A. Lazar, C. Buckingham, A. C. N. Garabato, G. M. Damerell, and K. J.
Heywood, 2016: Open-ocean submesoscale motions: A full seasonal cycle of mixed layer
instabilities from gliders.
Journal of Physical Oceanography
,
46 (4)
, 1285–1307.
Thompson, A. F., A. L. Stewart, P. Spence, and K. J. Heywood, 2018: The Antarctic Slope
Current in a Changing Climate.
Reviews of Geophysics
,
56 (4)
, 741–770, https://doi.org/10.
1029/2018RG000624.
Wang, J., F. Massonnet, H. Goosse, H. Luo, A. Barth
́
elemy, and Q. Yang, 2024: Synergistic
atmosphere-ocean-ice influences have driven the 2023 all-time Antarctic sea-ice record low.
Communications Earth & Environment
,
5
, 415, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01523-3.
Youngs, M. K., and G. R. Flierl, 2023: Extending Residual-Mean Overturning Theory to the
Topographically Localized Transport in the Southern Ocean.
Journal of Physical Oceanography
,
53 (8)
, 1901–1915, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-22-0217.1.
Yu, X., A. C. Naveira Garabato, A. P. Martin, C. E. Buckingham, L. Brannigan, and Z. Su,
2019: An annual cycle of submesoscale vertical flow and restratification in the upper ocean.
Journal of Physical Oceanography
,
49 (6)
, 1439–1461, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1175/
JPO-D-18-0253.1.
Brought to you by Caltech Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 11/07/24 07:23 PM UTC