Selective Cytotoxicity of Rhodium Metalloinsertors in Mismatch
Repair-Deficient Cells
†
Russell J. Ernst
,
Alexis C. Komor
, and
Jacqueline K. Barton
*
Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena
CA 91125
Abstract
Mismatches in DNA occur naturally during replication and as a result of endogenous DNA
damaging agents, but the mismatch repair (MMR) pathway acts to correct mismatches before
subsequent rounds of replication. Rhodium metalloinsertors bind to DNA mismatches with high
affinity and specificity and represent a promising strategy to target mismatches in cells. Here we
examine the biological fate of rhodium metalloinsertors bearing dipyridylamine ancillary ligands
in cells deficient in MMR versus those that are MMR-proficient. These complexes are shown to
exhibit accelerated cellular uptake which permits the observation of various cellular responses,
including disruption of the cell cycle, monitored by flow cytometry assays, and induction of
necrosis, monitored by dye exclusion and caspase inhibition assays, that occur preferentially in the
MMR-deficient cell line. These cellular responses provide insight into the mechanisms underlying
the selective activity of this novel class of targeted anti-cancer agents.
Mismatches in DNA arise naturally as a result of replication errors, endogenous DNA
damaging agents, and spontaneous processes such as cytosine deamination. The mismatch
repair (MMR) pathway acts to correct mismatches before subsequent rounds of replication,
reducing the number of DNA mismatches in the human genome from ~1000 to ~1.
1
The loss
of MMR carries dire consequences, including increased mutation rates
2-4
, carcinogenesis
5-8
,
and resistance to a variety of clinical anti-cancer agents, such as anti-metabolites, DNA
alkylators, and cisplatin.
9-16
Furthermore, this resistance to commonly used agents leads to
enrichment of MMR-deficient cells; roughly half of secondary leukemias show MMR-
deficiency.
17
These issues point to the need for a therapeutic agent that specifically targets
MMR-deficient cells.
Rhodium metalloinsertors have been developed in our laboratory to target DNA mismatches
in vitro
(Figure 1).
18-22
DNA mismatches, owing to their loss of hydrogen bonding and poor
stacking, are destabilized relative to well matched DNA.
23
It is this thermodynamic
destabilization that our laboratory seeks to exploit as a means of targeting mismatches, since
mismatches do not significantly perturb the structure of the B-form DNA duplex.
24-28
The
width of the expansive aromatic system of the chrysi ligand (chrysi = chrysene-5,6-
quinonediimine) exceeds the width of well matched base pairs, 11.3 Å versus 10.8 Å. As a
result, complexes bearing the chrysi ligand can be preferentially accommodated by DNA at
thermodynamically destabilized mismatch sites.
20
In addition to their DNA binding
capabilities, these complexes promote single-stranded cleavage of the DNA backbone upon
photoactivation. This photocleavage chemistry provides a useful tool to probe DNA binding.
Photocleavage titration experiments revealed that the first generation compound,
†
Financial support for this work from the NIH (GM33309) is gratefully acknowledged. We also thank Amgen and the Parsons
foundation for fellowship support to R.J.E. and NSF for a predoctoral fellowship to A.C.K.
*
To whom correspondence should be addressed; jkbarton@caltech.edu; tel: 626-395-6075; fax: 626-395-5918.
NIH Public Access
Author Manuscript
Biochemistry
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 December 20.
Published in final edited form as:
Biochemistry
. 2011 December 20; 50(50): 10919–10928. doi:10.1021/bi2015822.
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
[Rh(bpy)
2
chrysi]
3+
, binds 80% of DNA mismatches with typical binding constants of 10
6
M
−1
and remarkable specificity for mismatched DNA; similar experiments also showed
single-site targeting of the mismatch in a 2.7 kb DNA fragment.
18,19
Subsequent work led to
the incorporation of nitrogen atoms into the intercalating ligand and a 50-fold increase in
binding affinity for the second compound, [Rh(bpy)
2
phzi]
3+
(phzi = benzo[
a
] phenazine-5,6-
quinonediimine).
20
A high resolution crystal structure of [Rh(bpy)
2
chrysi]
3+
bound to single base mismatches
within a DNA oligonucleotide duplex reveals a distinctive binding mode at the mismatched
site.
29
We had previously demonstrated that rhodium intercalators bearing the phi ligand
bind to well-matched DNA by partial intercalation of the planar phi ligand from the major
groove side into the base pair stack.
30
However, binding to the mismatched site involves
instead insertion of the more expansive chrysi ligand into the DNA duplex from the minor
groove side at the mismatched site with ejection of the mismatched bases out of the DNA
stack; the inserted ligand stacks fully with adjacent base pairs. NMR studies confirm this
metalloinsertion mode for the complex at mismatched sites in solution.
31
Further
crystallographic studies revealed the generality of the metalloinsertion binding mode; in
independent views of metalloinsertion at four different mismatch sites, the ejected bases
superimpose identically.
32
It seems likely that such a perturbation of the double helix might
have consequences within the cell.
Of course, any potential agent must first reach its target before it may bind. Confocal
microscopy and flow cytometry studies with [Ru(L)
2
dppz]
2+
(dppz=dipyrido[3,2-a:2
′
,3
′
-
c]phenazine) analogues have demonstrated that cellular accumulation occurs through
passive diffusion, facilitated by the negative potential difference across the cell
membrane.
33-34
Taken together, the observations that (i) rhodium metalloinsertors are
capable of recognizing mismatches with high selectivity and (ii) analogous ruthenium
complexes accumulate within cells and nuclei form a sound basis for the hypothesis that
rhodium metalloinsertors recognize mismatched DNA within cells and predict that these
complexes should selectively target MMR-deficient cells, which harbor ~1,000 fold more
mismatches than MMR-proficient cells.
This predicted selectivity has been demonstrated in the HCT116 cell lines.
35,36
The
HCT116N/HCT116O pair serve as an isogenic model system for MMR deficiency, differing
only in the presence of an active copy of the MLH1 gene, which is essential for MMR.
37
Rhodium metalloinsertors were shown to block selectively the growth of the repair-deficient
HCT116O cell line versus the repair-proficient HCT116N cell line, as measured by an
ELISA for DNA synthesis, which serves as a proxy for cellular proliferation.
38,39
Importantly, the difference in activity between the cell lines correlates directly with the
binding affinity for DNA mismatches for a series of rhodium metalloinsertors with varying
ancillary ligands.
36
This observation supports the idea that rhodium metalloinsertors bind to
DNA mismatches
in cellulo
as well as
in vitro
.
However, the proliferation assay does not distinguish between senescence and cell death,
and therefore is insufficient to demonstrate cytotoxicity. Here, we show that rhodium
metalloinsertors are preferentially cytotoxic to the MMR-deficient HCT116O cell line. This
rhodium-induced death is shown to be necrotic rather than apoptotic, and is preceded by cell
cycle arrest at the G1/S-phase boundary. This observation is consistent with activation of the
DNA damage response by rhodium metalloinsertors.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Materials
RhCl
3
was purchased from Pressure Chemical, Inc. (Pittsburgh, PA). [Rh(NH
3
)
5
Cl]Cl
2
was
obtained from Strem Chemical, Inc. (Newburyport, MA). 2,2
′
-dipyridylamine (HDPA) and
Sephadex ion exchange resin were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO). Sep-Pak
C
18
solid phase extraction cartridges were purchased from Waters Chemical Co. (Milford,
MA). Media and supplements were purchased from Invitrogen (Carlsbad, CA). The 3-[4,5-
dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) labeling reagant and
acidified lysis buffer (10% SDS in 10 mM HCl) were purchased in kit format from Roche
Molecular Biochemicals (Mannheim, Germany). Z-VAD-FMK caspase inhibitor was
purchased from Promega. All PARP inhibitors were purchased from Santa Cruz
Biotechnology, Inc. All commercial materials were used as received.
Synthesis of Metal Complexes
[Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]Cl
3
was prepared according to previously described procedures.
36
[Rh(MeDPA)
2
chrysi]Cl
3
was synthesized by refluxing [Rh(NH
3
)
4
chrysi]TFA
3
with 2
equivalents of MeDPA in 1:1 ethanol:water overnight. The ligand MeDPA was prepared by
deprotonation and methylation of HDPA (unpublished results in the laboratory). The
reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature, and the solvent was removed under
vacuum. The desired product was isolated by cation exchange chromatography with
Sephadex CM-25 resin, eluting with 0.03 M MgCl
2
(aq)
.
Excess magnesium was removed by
solid phase extraction with a Sep-pak C
18
cartridge and the TFA counterion was exchanged
for the chloride by anion exchange chromatography with Sephadex QAE-125 resin.
Formation of the desired product was confirmed by UV/vis (H
2
O, pH 5): 295 nm (55,000
M
−1
cm
−1
), 320 nm (39,700 M
−1
cm
−1
), 390 nm (14,000 M
−1
cm
−1
) and ESI-MS (cation):
727.1 m/z ([M-2H]
+
), 364.3 m/z ([M-H]
2+
) obs., 727.2 m/z ([M-2H]
+
) calc. Purity was
confirmed by analytical HPLC (t
retention
= 13.5 minutes, 10:90:0.1 MeCN:H
2
O:TFA to
40:60:0.1 MeCN:H
2
O:TFA over 45 minutes).
Cell Culture
HCT116N and HCT116O cells were grown in RPMI medium 1640 supplemented with: 10%
FBS; 2 mM L-glutamine; 0.1 mM nonessential amino acids; 1 mM sodium pyruvate; 100
units/mL penicillin; 100
μ
g/mL streptomycin; and 400
μ
g/mL geneticin (G418). Cells were
grown in tissue culture flasks and dishes (Corning Costar, Acton, MA) at 37°C under 5%
CO
2
and humidified atmosphere.
ICP-MS Assay for Cellular Rhodium Levels
Each cell line was treated with 10
μ
M of [Rh(bpy)
2
chrysi]
3+
, [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
, or
[Rh(NH
3
)
4
chrysi]
3+
for 48 hours. After rhodium incubation, the cells were harvested from
adherent culture by trypsinization, washed with cold PBS, and counted by hemacytometer.
The samples were pelleted and resuspended in 1% HNO
3
(v/v), homogenized by three
freeze/thaw cycles in liquid nitrogen, and analyzed for rhodium content on an HP-4500 ICP-
MS unit. Rhodium counts were normalized to the number of cells counted in each sample
before lysate preparation. Standard errors for three independent experiments are shown.
Cellular Proliferation ELISA
HCT116N and HCT116O cells were plated in 96-well plates at 2,000 cells/well and allowed
24 hours to adhere. The cells were then incubated with rhodium for the durations specified.
For incubation less than 72 hours, the Rh-containing media was replaced with fresh media,
and the cells were grown for the remainder of the 72 hour period. Cells were labeled with
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BrdU 24 hours before analysis. The BrdU incorporation was quantified by antibody assay
according to established procedures.
38,39
Cellular proliferation was expressed as the ratio of
the amount of BrdU incorporated by the treated cells to that of the untreated cells.
MTT Cytotoxicity Assay
Cytoxicity assays were performed as described in the literature.
40
HCT116N and HCT116O
cells were plated in 96-well plates at 50,000 cells/well and incubated with rhodium for the
durations specified. After rhodium incubation, cells were labeled with MTT for 4 hours at
37°C under 5% CO
2
and humidified atmosphere. The resulting formazan crystals were
dissolved with solubilizing reagant purchased from Roche according to the manufacturer’s
instructions. The dissolved formazan was quantified as the absorbance at 570 nm minus the
background absorbance at 690 nm. Percent viability was determined as the ratio of the
amount of formazan in the treated cells to that of the untreated cells. For caspase inhibition
assays, Z-VAD-FMK was added to a final concentration of 20
μ
M. For poly-ADP ribose
polymerase (PARP) assays, the inhibitor 3,4-Dihydro-5[4-(1-piperindinyl)butoxy]-1(2H)-
isoquinoline (DPQ) was added to a final concentration of 0, 25, or 50
μ
M; the inhibitor 3-
aminobenzamide (3-AB) was added to a final concentration of 0, 2, or 3 mM; the inhibitor
4-amino-1,8-napthalimide (4-AN) was added to a final concentration of 0, 10, or 20
μ
M;
and the inhibitor 2-((
R
)-2-Methylpyrrolidin-2-yl)-1
H
-benzimidazole-4-carboxamide
(ABT-888) was added to a final concentration of 0, 5, or 10
μ
M.
Cell Cycle Distribution Flow Cytometry Assay
Cells were harvested from adherent culture by trypsinization and washed with cold PBS.
The resultant pellet was resuspended in PBS (chilled to 4 °C), and ice-cold ethanol was
added dropwise to a final concentration of 70% (v/v), with continuous gentle agitation. Cells
were fixed at 4°C for 30 minutes and stored for up to one week. Prior to analysis, the fixed
cells in 70% ethanol were diluted 1:3 in cold PBS and centrifuged at 1,400 × g for 5
minutes. The resultant pellet was washed twice and resuspended in ice-cold PBS.
Ribonuclease was added to a final concentration of 30
μ
g/mL and the cells were incubated
overnight at 4 °C. The next day propidium iodide was added to a final concentration of 20
μ
g/mL and cells were analyzed by flow cytometry. Data analysis was performed using the
FloJo software package (v 8.7.1).
Cell Death Mode Flow Cytometry Assay
Cell death was characterized by a dye exclusion assay.
41
After 24, 48, or 72 hour incubation
with rhodium, cells were harvested from adherent culture by trypsinization and washed with
cold PBS, and centrifuged at 2,000 rpm for 5 minutes. The resultant pellets were
resuspended in PBS to a concentration of 10
6
cells/mL and stained with propidium iodide to
a final concentration of 1
μ
g/mL and with YO-PRO-1 to a final concentration of 200 nM for
30 minutes prior to analysis by flow cytometry.
RESULTS
ICP-MS of whole cell lysates
Each cell line was treated with 10
μ
M of [Rh(bpy)
2
chrysi]
3+
, [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
, or
[Rh(NH
3
)
4
chrysi]
3+
for 48 hours. Whole cell lysates were analyzed for rhodium levels by
ICP-MS (Figure 2). As expected, the HDPA complex exhibits a higher degree of cellular
uptake than the other complexes. This supports the notion that the early activity displayed by
the complex in the ELISA assay results from accelerated uptake.
36
It should be noted that
these treatment conditions directly reflect those used previously.
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MTT cytotoxicity assay
The cytotoxicities of [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
and [Rh(MeDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
were determined by
MTT assay.
40
Briefly, reduction of the MTT reagant by mitochondrial enzymes leads to the
production of formazan, which can then be dissolved in acidified SDS to produce a
characteristic absorbance at 570 nm. This absorbance reflects the relative metabolic activity,
which in turn reflects the percentage of viable cells in each sample. HCT116N and
HCT116O cells were plated and treated with 0-25
μ
M of [Rh(bpy)
2
chrysi]
3+
,
[Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
, or [Rh(MeDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
for 48 or 72 hours. The results are shown
in Figure 3. At 48 hours [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
and [Rh(MeDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
clearly display
an enhanced toxicity in the MMR-deficient HCT116O cell line versus the HCT116N cell
line. For example, 72 hours after treatment with 20
μ
M [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
, the number
of viable HCT116N cells is 80 ± 5.2 % of untreated controls, whereas the number of viable
HCT116O cells is 37 ± 4.4 % of untreated controls. [Rh(MeDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
also shows
differential toxicity against the HCT116O cell line in this assay comparable to that of
[Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
.
Cell cycle distribution
Given the observation that the complexes inhibit DNA synthesis, a flow cytometry assay
was performed to determine if the cytotoxicity of [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
is accompanied by
disruption of the cell cycle.
36
MMR-proficient HCT116N and MMR-deficient HCT116O
cells were treated with 20
μ
M [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
for 24 or 48 h. After treatment, cells
were stained with propidium iodide (PI) and analyzed by flow cytometry. The PI
fluorescence reports the amount of DNA in each cell and follows a bimodal distribution,
where the first peak contains cells with one copy of the genome, i.e. cells in G0/G1-phase,
and the second peak contains cells with two copies of the genome, i.e. cells in G2- or M-
phase. Cells in S-phase occupy the region between the two peaks. Figure 4 shows these
distributions for both cell lines, with or without rhodium treatment. In both cases, a decrease
in the area under the curve between the peaks can be seen, indicating a depletion of the S-
phase populations. Fitting the raw distributions to G1-, S-, or G2/M-phases confirms the
depletion of the S-phase population, concomitant with an increase in the G1-phase
population. Notably, at this concentration of [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
large differentials in
both the ELISA and MTT assay were observed. The changes to the cell cycle are more
pronounced in the mismatch repair deficient HCT116O cell line, which continues to grow
aggressively at 48 hours (> 50% S-phase) in the absence of rhodium treatment, whereas
growth of the HCT116N cell line slows slightly as the density of the culture increases.
Furthermore, the HCT116O cell line also shows a significant increase in the G2/M
population as well as the G1 population.
Mode of cell death
To characterize the cell death occurring in response to rhodium treatment, a dye exclusion
flow cytometry assay was employed.
41
The assay differentiates between live cells, dead
cells, and cells undergoing apoptosis or necrosis through concurrent staining with propidium
iodide (a dead cell permeable dye) and YO-PRO-1 (an apoptotic cell permeable dye). By
plotting the fluorescence of the YO-PRO-1 channel against the PI channel, a pattern
emerges. Healthy cells are seen in the lower lefthand corner of the plot. Apoptotic cells
exhibit higher YO-PRO-1 fluorescence, but still exclude propidium iodide, placing them in
the upper lefthand quadrant of the pattern. Dead cells admit both dyes and are therefore seen
in the upper righthand quadrant of the image. Upon flow cytometry analysis, cells can be
classified as live, apoptotic, necrotic, or dead by defining regions in the fluorescence plane
corresponding to each category.
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The HCT116N and HCT116O cell lines were incubated with 0–25
μ
M of
[Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
for 24–72 hours. After harvesting the cells and staining with both PI
and YO-PRO-1, the cells were analyzed by flow cytometry to obtain raw fluorescence data.
Representative data for 20
μ
M rhodium treatment for 72 hours are shown in Figure 5. YO-
PRO-1 fluorescence is shown on the
y
-axis, and PI fluorescence is shown on the
x
-axis. The
color scale represents the number of cells, with blue indicating fewer cells at a given pair of
fluorescence levels, and orange representing a greater number of cells at a given pair of
fluorescence levels. The raw data were analyzed by gating the fluorescence events into one
of four categories, depending on the fluorescence levels of the two dyes. Figure 5 also shows
histograms of live, apoptotic, necrotic, and dead cells for the HCT116N and HCT116O cell
lines based on the flow cytometry. Rhodium treatment was either 15 or 20
μ
M
[Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
for 72 hours. As before, rhodium treatment alone induces necrosis
preferentially in the MMR-deficient HCT116O cell line; there is no significant change in the
percentage of cells in the apoptotic region in either cell line. The effect is significantly more
pronounced in the MMR-deficient HCT116O cell line, which drops from 79 ± 3.8 % to 37 ±
5.3 % after treatment with 20
μ
M [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
, versus the MMR-proficient
HCT116N cell line, which shows a minimal decrease in live cells from 62 ± 0.6 % to 54 ±
5.1 % after treatment with 20
μ
M [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
.
Caspase inhibition
As a complement to the dye exclusion flow cytometry assay, the MTT cytotoxicity assay
was repeated in the absence and presence of the pan-caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK.
42
This
inhibitor works by irreversibly binding to the active site of caspases. As before, the
HCT116N and HCT116O cell lines were treated with 0 – 30
μ
M of the
[Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
complex for 24 – 72 hours. In addition, each treatment was also
combined with the inhibitor at a final concentration of 20
μ
M (Figure 6). As before, the
rhodium complex exhibited selective toxicity in the repair-deficient HCT116O cell line,
with cell viability dropping to 9.7 ± 4.4 % after treatment with 30
μ
M metal complex for 72
hours, versus 63 ± 5.7 % viability in the repair-proficient HCT116N cell line. Addition of
the caspase inhibitor at 20
μ
M offered no protection from rhodium to the HCT116N cell line
(63 ± 5.7 % without inhibitor, 52 ± 9.8 % with inhibitor) or to the HCT116O cell line (9.7 ±
4.4 % without inhibitor, 9.8 ± 7.8 % with inhibitor). At a final concentration of 40
μ
M, the
caspase inhibitor provided some protection from rhodium to the HCT116O cell line (16 ± 10
% without inhibitor, 28 ± 3.7 % with inhibitor), but this difference was small in relation to
the differential between the HCT116N and HCT116O cell lines and roughly within error
(data not shown).
PARP inhibition
The MTT cytotoxicity assay was also repeated in conjunction with a panel of poly-ADP
ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibitors: DPQ, 3-AB, 4-AN, and ABT-888.
43-46
As before, the
HCT116N and HCT116O cell lines were treated with 0 or 20
μ
M of the
[Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
complex for 72 hours, with or without one of the four inhibitors. In
each case, treatment with the inhibitor completely abolished the selective MMR-dependent
effects of the rhodium compound (Figure 7), as determined by the difference between the
percentage of viable cells in the HCT116N cell line and the percentage of viable cells in the
HCT116O cell line. For example, in the case of the compound DPQ, this difference was 43
± 2.7 % without inhibitor and 0.6 ± 3.0 % with inhibitor. Similar results are seen with each
of the other three compounds as well; taken together, these data implicate PARP in the
MMR-dependent response to [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
.
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DISCUSSION
The direct correlation between the binding affinity of rhodium metalloinsertors for DNA
mismatches and the differential in their activity between the HCT116N and HCT116O cell
lines fails to predict the high selective activity of [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
. In light of the
shorter incubations required for this complex, it seemed likely that accelerated cellular
uptake is a contributing factor in the increased cellular response. As [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
is not luminescent, another method was needed to examine its cellular uptake. The high
atomic mass and monoisotopic distribution of rhodium make the cellular accumulation of
rhodium metalloinsertors well suited to analysis by inductively coupled plasma – mass
spectrometry (ICP-MS).
47-49
ICP-MS affords a direct comparison of the cellular
accumulation of a series of rhodium metalloinsertors after treatments similar to those
applied in ELISA assays for activity. The highest levels of cellular accumulation are clearly
seen for the complex bearing the HDPA ligand, which was expected in light of the previous
observation that [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
exhibits increased anti-proliferative activity against
the HCT116 cell lines at shorter incubation times than other rhodium metalloinsertors.
Significant activity is seen with [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
in as little as 12 hours, while
[Rh(bpy)
2
chrysi]
3+
and [Rh(NH
3
)
4
chrysi]
3+
display no activity at this incubation time.
Rhodium metalloinsertors have shown differential anti-proliferative activity in an ELISA
assay for DNA synthesis. This assay directly reports on the amount of BrdU label
incorporated during DNA replication, and as such, does not distinguish between cells that
are viable but not replicating, e.g. G0 cells that have exited the cell cycle, and cells that are
inviable, or dead. Therefore, this assay can be used to determine
inhibitory,
but not
cytotoxic
activity. In contrast, the MTT assay reports directly on cell viability as measured by
metabolic activity, with the action of mitochondrial reductases catalyzing the cleavage of the
labeling agent MTT. Here cells that are viable still produce signal, i.e. formazan absorbance,
whether or not they are actively dividing. Thus, this assay can distinguish between
senescence and true cell death, and the effects observed in response to rhodium treatment are
truly cytotoxic. Importantly, the concentration ranges and incubation times of the treatments
applied in the MTT assays for [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
and the closely related complex
[Rh(MeDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
(0 – 25
μ
M, 24 – 72 hours) are identical to those that inhibit DNA
synthesis as seen by ELISA.
Accordingly, the result that [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
and [Rh(MeDPA)
2
3+
chrysi] trigger cell
death selectively in the MMR-deficient HCT116O cell line versus the MMR-proficient
HCT116N cell line as measured by MTT assay represents a significant advance in the
development of these complexes as anti-cancer agents; clearly, these agents are more potent
than previously considered. Although [Rh(bpy)
2
chrysi]
3+
does not appear to be selectively
toxic at these concentrations, it is likely that this is due to differences in the kinetics of
cellular uptake, rather than fundamental differences in its mode of action as compared to
[Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
, since both bind DNA mismatches with equal affinity.
36
For either
activity assay, the complex must first accumulate within the cell, and then cellular response
must be triggered. While [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
displays activity in ELISA after 12 h
incubations, [Rh(bpy)
2
chrysi]
3+
requires 48 h or more to show significant differential
activity. In light of the higher levels of rhodium accumulation seen by ICP-MS after
treatment with the HDPA complex
versus
the bpy complex, it seems likely that
accumulation of the bpy complex is delayed by ~36 h relative to the HDPA complex.
Cellular responses that occur quickly after accumulation, such as the inhibition of DNA
synthesis, can still be observed within the 72 h timeframe of the ELISA assay, and both
complexes display activity. However, a lag time will exist between the inhibition of DNA
synthesis and the onset of cell death, and when combined with the slow uptake of
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[Rh(bpy)
2
chrysi]
3+
, (t > 48 h), cell death is delayed accordingly and cannot be observed
within the timeframe of the MTT assay (also 72 h).
The fact that the [Rh(MeDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
complex displays differential toxicity against the
HCT116O cell lines comparable to that of the [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
complex suggests that
it shares the accelerated uptake of the HDPA complex. This was certainly expected, as the
complexes are almost identical, but does address the question of uptake mechanism, and
clearly refutes the hypothesis that accelerated uptake requires a hydrogen bonding
interaction with the bridging secondary amine of the HDPA ligand. More importantly, this
suggests that selective toxicity as a function of MMR-competency is a general property of
rhodium metalloinsertors with dipyridylamine ancillary ligands, and establishes these
ligands as the basis for the development of the next generation of complexes.
Flow cytometry analysis reveals that cell death is preceded by disruption of the cell cycle.
Treatment with 20
μ
M [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
for 24 hours leads to a marked depletion of
the S-phase population with a concomitant increase in the G1 population. These data suggest
that the G1/S-phase DNA damage checkpoint may be activated in response to rhodium
treatment. In the case of the HCT116O line, the G2/M-phase population also increases in
response to rhodium treatment. This could represent a secondary checkpoint activation
occurring at the G2/M-phase transition, and might signal a “two-alarm fire” that
accompanies the enhanced activity against this cell line.
The biochemical events associated with apoptosis have been extensively studied.
50
An
extensive network of regulatory proteins controls the initiation of this process in response to
both internal and external signals.
51
Upon activation, the cascade of initiator and effector
caspases cleaves a variety of substrates to bring about the morphological changes associated
with this mode of cell death, including nuclear condensation and fragmentation, plasma
membrane blebbing, decomposition of the cell into apoptotic bodies, and ultimately, the
engulfment of these bodies by neighboring cells through phagocytosis.
52
Importantly,
apoptotic cells retain their membrane integrity until the very last stages of this process,
preventing release of cytokines and thus avoiding inflammation. By comparison, both the
causes and the progression of necrosis are much less defined at the molecular level, and this
mode of cell death is most frequently characterized by morphological criteria.
52-54
Perhaps
the most reliable marker of necrosis then, is the early rupture of the plasma membrane, in
direct contrast to apoptosis. These differences in membrane integrity enable the facile
characterization of cell death by flow cytometry. The admission of the dead cell stain
propidium iodide by the HCT116 cell lines upon rhodium treatment reveals that cell death
proceeds through a necrotic, rather than apoptotic pathway. This conclusion is supported by
the observation that the caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK is unable to block rhodium-induced
toxicity in the MTT assay, indicating that death occurs in a caspase-independent fashion.
It is interesting to consider that rhodium metalloinsertors selectively induce necrosis in
MMR-deficient cells. Traditionally, necrotic cell death has been considered to be
“accidental”, occurring mainly in response to non-physiological insults.
55,56
More recently
however, the notion that necrosis may in fact be an ancestral mode of programmed cell
death has gained attention in the literature and community of cell death research.
52,53,57
Hitomi
et al
screened an siRNA library covering the mouse genome and identified 432 gene
knockdowns that blocked the induction of necrosis.
58
Chan
et al
found anti-necrotic proteins
encoded in the genomes of several viruses.
59
While these studies present some of the most
compelling evidence for the notion that necrosis is in fact a regulated process, several other
groups are also working to provide a molecular definition for the process as has been done
for apoptosis.
56,57
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Thompson and co-workers have reported that the DNA repair protein poly ADP-ribose
polymerase-1 (PARP-1) mediates the induction of necrosis in response to DNA damage by
the alkylator MNNG.
60
Upon activation at sites of DNA damage, PARP-1 covalently
modifies itself with long chains of ADP-ribose polymers in order to recruit downstream
components of the repair machinery.
61
As a result, PARP-1 along with PARP-2 has
attracted much attention as a therapeutic target recently, and several specific and potent
inhibitors of the enzyme are currently in clinical trials.
62
Here, treatment with a panel of
PARP-1 inhibitors confers protection from MMR-dependent toxicity, abolishing differential
activity between the HCT116 cell lines by Rh. This result strongly suggests that PARP
activation is required for the differential biological effects of rhodium metalloinsertors.
Importantly, the fact that each of the four PARP inhibitors on the panel abolishes differential
activity argues against the notion that off-target effects of any particular inhibitor are
responsible for blocking rhodium activity. Although the role of PARP in regulating necrosis
is still emerging, the requirement for PARP activation is consistent with the notion that these
rhodium complexes elicit a damage response upon binding to DNA mismatches. This is
supported by flow cytometry analysis that reveals cell death is preceded by disruption of the
cell cycle. Upon rhodium treatment, there is a sharp decline in the population of cells that
are actively synthesizing DNA. This observation suggests that the G1/S-phase DNA damage
checkpoint is activated.
As necrosis triggers a pro-inflammatory response by releasing cytokines, selective induction
of necrosis in cancerous tissues may be a way to activate the immune system against cancer
cells and ultimately improve efficacy of a therapeutic agent.
63
One accepted trigger of
necrosis is bioenergetic catastrophe, i.e. severe ATP depletion.
55,56
Rhodium
metalloinsertors might trigger such a catastrophe by targeting mitochondrial DNA.
Previously, it was thought that damaged mitochondrial genomes simply would be degraded
and replaced by the replication of undamaged DNA.
64
However, emerging research has
uncovered DNA repair processes in mitochondria, including mismatch repair capability.
64,65
As lipophilic cations, rhodium metalloinsertors likely accumulate in mitochondria
66-71
, as
we have seen with analogous ruthenium complexes in our laboratory.
33
If mitochondrial
DNA mismatches are in fact a target for rhodium metalloinsertors, then the resultant
disruption of mitochondrial function would lead to energy depletion and necrosis. Future
mechanistic work must explore the biochemical consequences of mismatch binding in
nuclear DNA
versus
mitochondrial DNA. It should be noted that these mechanisms are not
mutually exclusive; as such, both might contribute to the biological response to rhodium
metalloinsertors.
These studies support the notion that rhodium metalloinsertors bearing HDPA ligands
benefit from increased cellular accumulation, and thus provide an explanation for the
observation that [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
exceeds the activity predicted by its binding affinity
for DNA mismatches. This increased uptake allows us to observe additional cellular
responses to these agents, and, as a whole, a picture of the biological response to rhodium
metalloinsertors, exemplified by [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
in particular, is beginning to emerge
(Figure 8). Over the course of the first 12 hours, the rhodium complex accumulates in cells,
binding to either mitochondrial or genomic DNA mismatches. Within 24 hours, DNA
synthesis is inhibited, and cells accumulate in G1-phase. Over the next 24–48 hours, the
DNA damage response is likely activated, and ultimately leads to cell death by a caspase-
independent, necrotic mechanism. These biological effects are more pronounced at each
stage of the response in the MMR-deficient HCT116O cell line relative to the MMR-
proficient HCT116N cell line, strongly suggesting that DNA mismatches are in fact the
cellular target of rhodium metalloinsertors.
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This work shows that dipyridylamine ancillary ligands serve to accelerate the cellular uptake
of rhodium metalloinsertors, triggering a selective cytotoxic effect as a function of MMR
status and forming the foundation for the next generation of complex development. This
new class of agents is significantly more potent than previously considered, and the work
begun here on understanding their mechanism of action advances their development as
novel anti-cancer agents.
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Figure 1.
Structures of rhodium metalloinsertors, [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
and [Rh(MeDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
.
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Figure 2.
ICP-MS assay for rhodium accumulation. Normalized rhodium counts for whole cell lysates
treated with 0 or 10
μ
M [Rh(bpy)
2
chrysi]
3+
, [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
, or [Rh(NH
3
)
4
chrysi]
3+
for 48 hours. Standard error bars for three trials are shown. Cellular concentrations were
determined by counting on hemacytometer prior to lysis. Rhodium counts were normalized
to total cells per sample.
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Figure 3.
Selective toxicity of [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
and [Rh(MeDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
in MMR-deficient
cells. HCT116N and HCT116O cells were plated in 96-well format at densities of 5 × 10
4
cells/well and treated with 0 – 25
μ
M of [Rh(bpy)
2
chrysi]
3+
, [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
, or
[Rh(MeDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
. After 48–72 hours, the cells were labeled with MTT for 4 hours.
While the first generation complex [Rh(bpy)
2
chrysi]
3+
is non-toxic up to 72 hours, the
dipyridylamine derivatives [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
and [Rh(MeDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
exhibit
toxicity specifically in the MMR-deficient HCT116O cell line at 48 hours.
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Figure 4.
Cell cycle distribution assay. HCT116N (green) and HCT116O (red) cells were treated with
20
μ
M [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
for 24 or 48 hours. After fixation and staining with PI, cells
were analyzed by flow cytometry. The raw distributions were analyzed for cell cycle phase
using commercially available software. Upon rhodium treatment, the S-phase population is
depleted, with a concomitant increase in the G1-phase population.
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Figure 5.
Flow cytometry assay of cell death. (Top) HCT116N and HCT116O cells were treated with
20
μ
M [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
for 72 hours. Rhodium treatment causes cells to move away
from the origin, along the necrotic pathway (lower branch of pattern). The effect is more
pronounced in the HCT116O cell line. (Bottom) HCT116N and HCT116O cells were treated
with 15
μ
M or 20
μ
M [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
for 24 – 72 hours. Rhodium treatment causes a
sharp decrease in the live population of the HCT116O cell line with a corresponding
increase in the necrotic and dead cell populations. Minimal effect is seen in the HCT116N
cell line. Thus [Rh(HDPA)
2
chrysi]
3+
preferentially induces necrosis in the MMR-deficient
HCT116O cell line.
Ernst et al.
Page 18
Biochemistry
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 December 20.
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