CaltechAUTHORS
Published March 14, 2025 | Version Published
Journal Article Open

Global Carbon Budget 2024

Creators

  • 1. ROR icon University of Exeter
  • 2. ROR icon Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace
  • 3. ROR icon University of East Anglia
  • 4. ROR icon Center for International Climate and Environmental Research
  • 5. ROR icon Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research
  • 6. ROR icon University of Bremen
  • 7. ROR icon Flanders Marine Institute
  • 8. ROR icon Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht Centre for Materials and Coastal Research
  • 9. ROR icon Max Planck Institute for Meteorology
  • 10. ROR icon Wageningen University & Research
  • 11. ROR icon University of Bergen
  • 12. ROR icon Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research
  • 13. ROR icon University of Groningen
  • 14. ROR icon Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
  • 15. ROR icon Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
  • 16. ROR icon Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement
  • 17. ROR icon Stanford University
  • 18. ROR icon Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory
  • 19. ROR icon Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
  • 20. ROR icon Environment and Climate Change Canada
  • 21. ROR icon Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences
  • 22. ROR icon University of Reading
  • 23. ROR icon Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Desarrollo Pesquero
  • 24. ROR icon Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research
  • 25. Hakai Institute, British Columbia, V0P 1H0, Canada
  • 26. CSIRO Environment, Castray Esplanade, Hobart, Tasmania 7004, Australia
  • 27. Research Institute for Global Change, JAMSTEC, 3173-25 Showa-machi, Kanazawa, Yokohama, 236-0001, Japan
  • 28. ROR icon University of Maryland, College Park
  • 29. ROR icon Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center
  • 30. ROR icon Federal University of Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées
  • 31. ROR icon Stellenbosch University
  • 32. Southern Ocean Carbon – Climate Observatory, CSIR, Rosebank, Cape Town, 7700, South Africa
  • 33. ROR icon Tsinghua University
  • 34. ROR icon Japan Meteorological Agency
  • 35. ROR icon Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
  • 36. ROR icon National Center for Atmospheric Research
  • 37. ROR icon International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis
  • 38. ROR icon Joint Research Centre
  • 39. ROR icon ETH Zurich
  • 40. ROR icon Appalachian State University
  • 41. ROR icon Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research
  • 42. ROR icon Universität Hamburg
  • 43. ROR icon Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences
  • 44. ROR icon University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
  • 45. ROR icon Nanjing University
  • 46. ROR icon Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research
  • 47. ROR icon Peking University
  • 48. ROR icon Institute of Applied Energy
  • 49. ROR icon University of California, San Diego
  • 50. ROR icon Utrecht University
  • 51. ROR icon Western Sydney University
  • 52. ROR icon Norwegian Research Centre
  • 53. ROR icon Sorbonne University
  • 54. ROR icon Jet Propulsion Lab
  • 55. ROR icon California Institute of Technology
  • 56. ROR icon National Institute for Environmental Studies
  • 57. ROR icon Villefranche Oceanographic Laboratory
  • 58. ROR icon University of Alaska Fairbanks
  • 59. ROR icon Fisheries Research Agency
  • 60. ROR icon University of Edinburgh
  • 61. ROR icon Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory
  • 62. ROR icon Sun Yat-sen University
  • 63. ROR icon Princeton University
  • 64. ROR icon Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry
  • 65. ROR icon University of Oxford
  • 66. ROR icon GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel
  • 67. Institute for Climate and Environmental Physics, Bern, Switzerland
  • 68. ROR icon Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology
  • 69. ROR icon Boston College
  • 70. ROR icon University of Tasmania
  • 71. ROR icon Barcelona Supercomputing Center
  • 72. ROR icon Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
  • 73. ROR icon Institute of Atmospheric Physics
  • 74. ROR icon Oak Ridge National Laboratory
  • 75. ROR icon Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology
  • 76. Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Science, University of Maryland, Maryland, USA

Abstract

Accurate assessment of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and their redistribution among the atmosphere, ocean, and terrestrial biosphere in a changing climate is critical to better understand the global carbon cycle, support the development of climate policies, and project future climate change. Here we describe and synthesize datasets and methodologies to quantify the five major components of the global carbon budget and their uncertainties. Fossil CO2 emissions (EFOS) are based on energy statistics and cement production data, while emissions from land-use change (ELUC) are based on land-use and land-use change data and bookkeeping models. Atmospheric CO2 concentration is measured directly, and its growth rate (GATM) is computed from the annual changes in concentration. The global net uptake of CO2 by the ocean (SOCEAN, called the ocean sink) is estimated with global ocean biogeochemistry models and observation-based fCO2 products (fCO2 is the fugacity of CO2). The global net uptake of CO2 by the land (SLAND, called the land sink) is estimated with dynamic global vegetation models. Additional lines of evidence on land and ocean sinks are provided by atmospheric inversions, atmospheric oxygen measurements, and Earth system models. The sum of all sources and sinks results in the carbon budget imbalance (BIM), a measure of imperfect data and incomplete understanding of the contemporary carbon cycle. All uncertainties are reported as ±1σ.

For the year 2023, EFOS increased by 1.3 % relative to 2022, with fossil emissions at 10.1 ± 0.5 GtC yr−1 (10.3 ± 0.5 GtC yr−1 when the cement carbonation sink is not included), and ELUC was 1.0 ± 0.7 GtC yr−1, for a total anthropogenic CO2 emission (including the cement carbonation sink) of 11.1 ± 0.9 GtC yr−1 (40.6 ± 3.2 GtCO2 yr−1). Also, for 2023, GATM was 5.9 ± 0.2 GtC yr−1 (2.79 ± 0.1 ppm yr−1; ppm denotes parts per million), SOCEAN was 2.9 ± 0.4 GtC yr−1, and SLAND was 2.3 ± 1.0 GtC yr−1, with a near-zero BIM (−0.02 GtC yr−1). The global atmospheric CO2 concentration averaged over 2023 reached 419.31 ± 0.1 ppm. Preliminary data for 2024 suggest an increase in EFOS relative to 2023 of +0.8 % (−0.2 % to 1.7 %) globally and an atmospheric CO2 concentration increase by 2.87 ppm, reaching 422.45 ppm, 52 % above the pre-industrial level (around 278 ppm in 1750). Overall, the mean of and trend in the components of the global carbon budget are consistently estimated over the period 1959–2023, with a near-zero overall budget imbalance, although discrepancies of up to around 1 GtC yr−1 persist for the representation of annual to semi-decadal variability in CO2 fluxes. Comparison of estimates from multiple approaches and observations shows the following: (1) a persistent large uncertainty in the estimate of land-use change emissions, (2) low agreement between the different methods on the magnitude of the land CO2 flux in the northern extra-tropics, and (3) a discrepancy between the different methods on the mean ocean sink.

This living-data update documents changes in methods and datasets applied to this most recent global carbon budget as well as evolving community understanding of the global carbon cycle. The data presented in this work are available at https://doi.org/10.18160/GCP-2024 (Friedlingstein et al., 2024).

Copyright and License

© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. Published by Copernicus Publications.

Acknowledgement

We thank all the people and institutions who provided the data used in the Global Carbon Budget 2024 and the Global Carbon Project members for their input throughout the development of this publication. We thank Nigel Hawtin for producing Figs. 2 and 16. We thank Alex Vermeulen and Hannah Ritchie for hosting the global carbon budget datasets on the ICOS portal and the Our World in Data website, respectively. We thank Ram Alkama, Ian G. C. Ashton, Dorothee Bakker, Raffaele Bernardello, Ida Bagus Mandhara Brasika, Sebastian Brune, Fatemeh Cheginig, Emeric Claudel, Jason Cole, Lushanya Dayathilake, Pengyue Du, Christian Ethé, Stefanie Falk, Kristina Frölich, Lonneke Goddijn-Murphy, Ian Harman, Thomas Holding, Drew Holzworth, Rajesh Janardanan, Daniel Kennedy, Erik Kluzek, Fabrice Lacroix, Vladimir Lapin, Peter Lawrence, Sam Levis, Yi Liu, Damian Loher, Zoé Lloret, Adrien Martinez, Hideyuki Nakano, Lorna Nayagam, Naiqing Pan, Shufen Pan, Tristan Quaife, Simone Rossi, Paridhi Rustogi, Jamie D. Shutler, Richard Sims, Victoria Spada, Sean Swenson, Phillip Townsend, Katsuya Toyama, Shogo L. Urakawa, Anthony P. Walker, Jing Wang, Andrew J. Watson, S. Lachlan Whyborn, David K. Woolf, and Yakun Zhu for their involvement in the development, use, and analysis of the models and data products used here. We thank Kim Currie, Siyabulela Hamnca, Boris Herrmann, Arne Körtzinger, C. Lo Monaco, Team Malizia, Pedro Monteiro, and Mutshutshu Tsanwani, who contributed to the provision of surface ocean CO2 observations for the year 2023 (see Table S7). We also thank Stephen D. Jones of the Ocean Thematic Centre of the EU Integrated Carbon Observation System (ICOS) Research Infrastructure, Eugene Burger of NOAA's Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, and Alex Kozyr of NOAA's National Centers for Environmental Information for their contribution to surface ocean CO2 data and metadata management. We thank the scientists, institutions, and funding agencies responsible for the collection and quality control of the data in SOCAT as well as the International Ocean Carbon Coordination Project (IOCCP), the Surface Ocean – Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS), and the Integrated Marine Biosphere Research (IMBeR) programme for their support. We thank Nadine Goris and Lavinia Patara for support in calculating observational ocean evaluation metrics. We thank Fortunat Joos, Samar Khatiwala, and Timothy DeVries for providing historical atmospheric and ocean data. We thank the data providers ObsPack GLOBALVIEWplus v9.0 and NRT v9.2 for atmospheric CO2 observations. Ingrid T. Luijkx and Wouter Peters thank the CarbonTracker Europe team at Wageningen University, including Remco de Kok, Joram Hooghiem, Linda Kooijmans, and Auke van der Woude. Ian Harris thanks the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) for producing the Japanese 55-year Reanalysis (JRA-55). Reinel Sospedra-Alfonso thanks William J. Merryfield, Woosung Lee, Jason Cole, and Victoria Spada for their help in setting up and producing CanESM5 runs. Olivier Torres thanks Patricia Cadule, Juliette Mignot, Didier Swingedouw, and Laurent Bopp for contributions to the IPSL-CM6A-CO2-LR simulations. Yosuke Niwa thanks CSIRO, EC, EMPA, FMI, IPEN, JMA, LSCE, NCAR, NIES, NILU, NIWA, NOAA, SIO, and TU/NIPR for providing data for NISMON-CO2. Zhe Jin thanks Xiangjun Tian, Yilong Wang, Hongqin Zhang, Min Zhao, Tao Wang, Jinzhi Ding, and Shilong Piao for their contributions to the GONGGA inversion system. Paul I. Palmer thanks Lian Fang and acknowledges ongoing support from the National Centre for Earth Observation. Ning Zeng thanks Zhiqiang Liu, Yun Liu, Eugenia Kalnay, and Gassem Asrar for their contributions to the COLA system. Fei Jiang acknowledges the High-Performance Computing Center (HPCC) of Nanjing University for performing the inversions on its blade cluster system and thanks Weimin Ju for updating the a priori fluxes of the terrestrial ecosystems. Meike Becker and Are Olsen thank Sparebanken Vest/Agenda Vestlandet for their support for the observations on the Statsraad Lehmkuhl. Wiley Evans and Katie Campbell thank the Tula Foundation for funding support. Thanos Gkritzalis and the VLIZ ICOS team are thankful to the crew of the research vessel Simon Stevin for all the support and help they provide. Bronte Tilbrook and Craig Neill thank Australia's Integrated Marine Observing System (IMOS) for sourcing CO2 data. FAOSTAT is funded by FAO member states through their contributions to the FAO Regular Programme; data contributions by national experts are greatly acknowledged. Finally, we thank all funders who have supported the individual and joint contributions to this work (see details below), as well as the two reviewers of this paper and the many researchers who have provided feedback.

Funding

This research was supported by the following sources of funding: the Argentinian-Uruguayan Joint Technical Commission of the Maritime Front (Comisión Técnica Mixta del Frente Marítimo, CTMFM) (Argentina); the Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Dessarrollo Pesquero (Argentina); Australia's Integrated Marine Observing System (IMOS), which is enabled by the National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy (NCRIS) (Australia); Australian Community Climate and Earth System Simulator National Research Infrastructure (ACCESS-NRI) (Australia); the Australian National Environmental Science Program, Climate Systems Hub (Australia); the Research Foundation – Flanders (ICOS Flanders, grant no. I001821N) (Belgium); the Tula Foundation (Canada); the National Key Research and Development Program (grant nos. 2021YFD2200405, 2023YFF0805400, and 2023YFB3907404) (China); the Jiangsu Provincial Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars (grant no. BK20231530) (China); the National Natural Science Foundation (grant no. 42141020) (China); the Carbon Neutrality and Energy System Transformation (CNEST) programme led by Tsinghua University, granted by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (grant no. 2023YFE0113000) (China); the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (grant no. 2022QZKK0101) (China); the CAS Project for Young Scientists in Basic Research (grant no. YSBR-037) (China); the Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service, implemented by ECMWF (grant no. CAMS2 55) (European Commission); the Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service, implemented by MOi (grant no. CMEMS-TAC-MOB) (European Commission); Horizon 2020 4C (grant no. 821003) (European Commission); Horizon 2020 ESM2025 – Earth System Models for the Future (grant no. 101003536) (European Commission); Horizon 2020 GEORGE (grant no. 101094716) (European Commission); Horizon 2020 EYE-CLIMA (grant no. 101081395) (European Commission); ERC-2022-STG OceanPeak (grant no. 101077209) (European Commission); Horizon 2020 OceanICU Improving Carbon Understanding (grant no. 101083922) (European Commission); Horizon 2020 RESCUE project (grant no. 101056939) (European Commission); Horizon 2020 COMFORT project (grant no. 820989) (European Commission); Climate Space RECCAP-2 (European Space Agency); Ocean Carbon for Climate (European Space Agency); EO-LINCS (European Space Agency); the OceanSODA project (grant no. 4000112091/14/I-LG) (European Space Agency); Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers (INSU) (France); Institut Polaire français, Paul-Émile Victor (IPEV) (France); Observatoire des sciences de l'univers Ecce Terra (OSU at Sorbonne Université) (France); Institut de recherché français sur les ressources marines (IFREMER) (France); the French Oceanographic Fleet (FOF) (France); ICOS France (France); Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) (France); Agence Nationale de la Recherche – France 2030 (PEPR TRACCS programme under grant no. ANR-22-EXTR-0009) (France); Institut de l'Océan and the Institut des Sciences du Calcul et des Données of Sorbonne Université (IDEX SUPER 11-IDEX-0004, project team FORMAL) (France); the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, collaborative project C-SCOPE (project no. 03F0877A) (Germany); the Helmholtz Association ATMO programme (Germany); the Initiative and Networking Fund of the Helmholtz Association (grant no. VH-NG-19-33) (Germany); ICOS Germany (Germany); the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), project STEPSEC (grant no. 01LS2102A) (Germany); Helmholtz Young Investigator Group Marine Carbon and Ecosystem Feedbacks in the Earth System (MarESys, grant no. VH-NG-1301) (Germany); Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) under Germany's Excellence Strategy – EXC 2037 “Climate, Climatic Change, and Society” (project no. 390683824) (Germany); the Arctic Challenge for Sustainability II project (ArCS II; grant no. JP-MXD1420318865) (Japan); the Environment Research and Technology Development Fund (grants no. JPMEERF24S12205, JPMEERF24S12206, and JPMEERF24S12200) (Japan); CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency (grant no. JPMJCR23J4) (Japan); the Global Environmental Research Coordination System, Ministry of the Environment (grant no. E2252) (Japan); the Meteorological Agency (Japan); the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, MEXT Program for The Advanced Studies of Climate Change Projection (SENTAN) (grant nos. JPMXD0722680395 and JPMXD0722681344) (Japan); the NIES GOSAT project (Japan); the Research Council of Norway (N-ICOS-2, grant no. 296012) (Norway); the Research Council of Norway (grant no. 270061) (Norway); the Swiss National Science Foundation (grant no. 200020-200511) (Switzerland); the Natural Environmental Research Council, National Centre for Earth Observation (grant no. NE/R016518/1) (UK); the Natural Environment Research Council, UK EO Climate Information Service (grant no. NE/X019071/1) (UK); the Natural Environment Research Council (grant nos. NE/V01417X/1, NE/Y005260/1, and NE/V013106/1) (UK); the Natural Environment Research Council, National Centre for Atmospheric Science (UK); the Royal Society (grant no. RP\R1\191063) (UK); the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NSF cooperative agreement no. 1852977) (USA); the NOAA Ocean Acidification Program (grant no. 100018228) (USA); the NOAA Global Ocean Monitoring and Observing Program (grant no. 100018302) (USA); NOAA (cooperative agreement nos. NA22OAR4320151 and NA20OAR4310340 and grant no. 1305M322PNRMJ0338) (USA); NASA (grant nos. 80NSSC22K0150 and 80NM0018D0004); the National Science Foundation (grant nos. NSF-2019625, NSF-831361857, NSF-1903722, and NSF-1852977) (USA); the NASA Terrestrial Ecology Program (USA); NASA Carbon Monitoring System programme (80NSSC21K1059) (USA); the NASA Land Cover and Land Use Change Program (80NSSC24K0920) (USA); the US Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Biological and Environmental Research (USA); the Department for Education SciDAC (grant no. DESC0012972) (USA); IDS (grant no. 80NSSC17K0348) (USA); and Schmidt Sciences, LLC (USA).

We were also supported by the following computing facilities: the Australian Community Climate and Earth System Simulator National Research Infrastructure (ACCESS-NRI) (Australia); the Deutsches Klimarechenzentrum (DKRZ) granted by its Scientific Steering Committee (WLA) under project ID bm0891 (Germany); HPC cluster Aether at the University of Bremen, financed by DFG within the scope of the Excellence Initiative (Germany); HPC resources of TGCC under the allocation A0150102201 awarded by GENCI and of CCRT under grant no. CCRT2024-p24cheva awarded by CEA/DRF (France); HPC resources of Météo-France (France); JAMSTEC's ES4 supercomputer system (Japan); the NIES supercomputer system (Japan); UNINETT Sigma2, national infrastructure for high-performance computing and data storage in Norway (NN2980K and NS2980K) (Norway); the UK CEDA JASMIN supercomputer (UK); the UEA (University of East Anglia) high-performance computing cluster (UK); the Derecho supercomputer (https://doi.org/10.5065/D6RX99HX), provided by the Computational and Information Systems Laboratory (CISL) at NCAR (USA); the Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (USA); and, for ISAM simulations, Cheyenne, NCAR HPC resources managed by CISL (https://doi.org/10.5065/D6RX99HX) (USA).

Contributions

PF, MO, MWJ, RMA, JH, PL, CLQ, HL, ITL, AO, GPP, WP, JP, CS, and SSi designed the study, conducted the analysis, and wrote the paper with input from JGC, PCi, and RBJ. RMA, GPP, and JIK produced the fossil CO2 emissions and their uncertainties and analysed the emissions data. MH and GMa provided fossil fuel emissions data. JP, TGa, ZQ, and CS provided the bookkeeping land-use change emissions with synthesis by JP and CS. SSm provided the estimates of non-vegetation CDR fluxes. LB, MC, ÖG, NG, TI, TJ, LR, JS, RS, and HTs provided an update of the global ocean biogeochemical models; LMD, ARF, DJF, MG, LG, YI, AJ, CR, AR, JZ, and PC provided an update of the ocean fCO2 data products, with synthesis on both streams by JH, PL, and NMa. SRA, NRB, MB, CFB, HCB, KC, KE, WE, RAF, TGk, SKL, NL, NMe, NMM, SN, LO, TO, DP, AJS, ST, BT, CN, and RW provided ocean fCO2 measurements for the year 2023, with synthesis by AO and TS. AA, VA, PCa, THC, JD, CDR, AF, JHe, AKJ, EK, JK, PCM, LM, TN, MO, QS, HTi, XYa, WY, XYu, and SZ provided an update of the dynamic global vegetation models, with synthesis by SSi and MO. HL, RSA, OT, and ET provided estimates of land and ocean sinks from Earth system models, as well as a projection of the atmospheric growth rate for 2024. NC, FC, ARJ, FJ, ZJ, JL, SM, YN, PIP, CR, DY, and NZ provided an updated atmospheric inversion. WP, FC, and ITL developed the protocol and produced the synthesis and evaluation of the atmospheric inversions. RMA provided projections of the 2024 fossil emissions and atmospheric CO2 growth rate. PL provided the predictions of the 2024 ocean and land sinks. LPC, GCH, KKG, TMR, GRvdW, WX, and ZY provided forcing data for land-use change. FT and GG provided data for the land-use change NGHGI harmonization. RFK provided key atmospheric CO2 data. EJM and RFK provided the atmospheric oxygen constraint on surface net carbon sinks. MWJ provided the historical atmospheric CO2 concentration and growth rate. MO and NB produced the aerosol diffuse radiative forcing for the DGVMs. IH provided the climate forcing data for the DGVMs. PCM provided the evaluation of the DGVMs. MWJ provided the emissions prior for use in the inversion systems. XD provided seasonal emissions data for the most recent years for the emissions prior. PF, MO, and MWJ coordinated the effort and revised all figures, tables, text, and numbers to ensure the update was clear in relation to the 2023 edition and in line with https://globalcarbonatlas.org/ (last access: 21 January 2025).

Conflict of Interest

At least one of the (co-)authors is a member of the editorial board of Earth System Science Data. The peer-review process was guided by an independent editor, and the authors also have no other competing interests to declare.

Additional Information

This paper was edited by Kirsten Elger and reviewed by H. Damon Matthews and Andrew Lenton.

Supplemental Material

The supplement related to this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-965-2025-supplement.

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Additional details

Related works

Is supplemented by
Dataset: 10.18160/GCP-2024 (DOI)

Funding

Research Foundation - Flanders
I001821N
Tula Foundation
Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China
2023YFB3907404
Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China
2023YFE0113000
Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China
2023YFF0805400
Jiangsu Province Science and Technology Department
BK20231530
National Natural Science Foundation of China
42141020
Chinese Academy of Sciences
YSBR-037
Chinese Academy of Sciences
2021YFD2200405
European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts
CAMS2 55
European Commission
101003536
European Commission
101094716
European Commission
101056939
HORIZON EUROPE Framework Programme
101081395
HORIZON EUROPE Framework Programme
101083922
European Research Council
101077209
European Research Council
CAMS2 55
European Research Council
CMEMS-TAC-MOB
European Research Council
820989
European Space Agency
4000112091/14/I-LG
Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers
Institut Polaire Français Paul Émile Victor
Ifremer
Flotte Océanographique Française
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement
Agence Nationale de la Recherche
ANR-22-EXTR-0009
Sorbonne Université
IDEX SUPER 11-IDEX-0004
Federal Ministry of Education and Research
03F0877A
Federal Ministry of Education and Research
01LS2102A
Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres
ATMO
Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres
VH-NG-19-33
Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres
VH-NG-1301
Integrated Carbon Observation System
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
390683824
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
JPMXD1420318865
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
JPMXD0722680395
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
JPMXD0722681344
Ministry of the Environment
JPMEERF24S12206
Ministry of the Environment
E2252
Ministry of the Environment
JPMEERF24S12200
Meteorological Research Institute
Japan Science and Technology Agency
JPMJCR23J4
The Research Council of Norway
296012
The Research Council of Norway
270061
Swiss National Science Foundation
200020-200511
Natural Environment Research Council
NE/X019071/1
Natural Environment Research Council
NE/V01417X/1
Natural Environment Research Council
NE/Y005260/1
Natural Environment Research Council
NE/V013106/1
National Centre for Earth Observation
NE/R016518/1
National Centre for Atmospheric Science
Royal Society
RP\\R1\\191063
NSF National Center for Atmospheric Research
1852977
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
100018228
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
100018302
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NA22OAR4320151
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NA20OAR4310340
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
1305M322PNRMJ0338
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
80NSSC21K1059
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
80NSSC24K0920
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
80NSSC22K0150
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
80NM0018D0004
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
80NSSC17K0348
National Science Foundation
NSF-2019625
National Science Foundation
NSF-831361857
National Science Foundation
NSF-1903722
National Science Foundation
NSF-1852977
United States Department of Energy
United States Department of Education
DESC0012972

Dates

Submitted
2024-11-06
Accepted
2025-01-30

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