ZTF SN Ia DR2: Secondary maximum in type Ia supernovae

Creators: Deckers, M. (Corresponding)¹; Maguire, K.¹; Shingles, L.²; Dimitriadis, G.^{1, 3}; Rigault, M.⁴; Smith, M.³; Goobar, A.⁵; Nordin, J.⁶; Johansson, J.⁵; Amenouche, M.⁷; Burgaz, U.¹; Dhawan, S.⁸; Ginolin, M.⁴; Harvey, L.¹; Kenworthy, W. D.⁵; Kim, Y.-L.³; Laher, R. R.^{9, 10}; Luo, N.¹; Kulkarni, S. R.⁹; Masci, F. J.^{9, 10}; Galbany, L.^{11, 12}; Müller-Bravo, T. E.^{11, 12}; Nugent, P. E.^{13, 14}; Pletskova, N.¹⁵; Purdum, J.⁹; Racine, B.¹⁶; Sollerman, J.⁵; Terwel, J. H.¹

1. Trinity College Dublin
2. GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research
3. Lancaster University
4. Claude Bernard University Lyon 1
5. Stockholm University
6. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
7. National Research Council Canada
8. University of Cambridge
9. California Institute of Technology
10. Infrared Processing and Analysis Center
11. Institute of Space Sciences
12. Institut d'Estudis Espacials de Catalunya
13. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
14. University of California, Berkeley
15. Drexel University
16. Center for Particle Physics of Marseilles

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Abstract

Type Ia supernova (SN Ia) light curves have a secondary maximum that exists in the r, i, and near-infrared filters. The secondary maximum is relatively weak in the r band, but holds the advantage that it is accessible, even at high redshift. We used Gaussian process fitting to parameterise the light curves of 893 SNe Ia from the Zwicky Transient Facility’s (ZTF) second data release (DR2), and we were able to extract information about the timing and strength of the secondary maximum. We found > 5σ correlations between the light curve dec rate (Δm₁₅(g)) and the timing and strength of the secondary maximum in the r band. Whilst the timing of the secondary maximum in the i band is also correlated with Δm₁₅(g), the strength of the secondary maximum in the i band shows significant scatter as a function of Δm₁₅(g). We found that the transparency timescales of 97 per cent of our sample are consistent with double detonation models and that SNe Ia with small transparency timescales (< 32 d) reside predominantly in locally red environments. We measured the total ejected mass for the normal SNe Ia in our sample using two methods and both were consistent with medians of 1.3 ± 0.3 and 1.2 ± 0.2 M_⊙. We find that the strength of the secondary maximum is a better standardisation parameter than the SALT light curve stretch (x₁). Finally, we identified a spectral feature in the r band as Fe II, which strengthens during the onset of the secondary maximum. The same feature begins to strengthen at < 3 d post maximum light in 91bg-like SNe. Finally, the correlation between x₁ and the strength of the secondary maximum was best fit with a broken, with a split at x₁⁰ = − 0.5 ± 0.2, suggestive of the existence of two populations of SNe Ia.

Copyright and License

Open Access article, published by EDP Sciences, under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Acknowledgement

MD, KM, GD, UB, and JHT are funded by the EU H2020 ERC grant no. 758638. LJS acknowledge support by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (ERC Advanced Grant KILONOVA No. 885281). LJS acknowledges support by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) – Project-ID 279384907 – SFB 1245 and MA 4248/3-1. L.G. acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MCIN) and the Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI) 10.13039/501100011033 under the PID2020-115253GA-I00 HOSTFLOWS project, from Centro Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) under the PIE project 20215AT016 and the program Unidad de Excelencia María de Maeztu CEX2020-001058-M, and from the Departament de Recerca i Universitats de la Generalitat de Catalunya through the 2021-SGR-01270 grant. This work has been supported by the research project grant “Understanding the Dynamic Universe” funded by the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation under Dnr KAW 2018.0067. This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement n 759194 – USNAC). AG acknowledges support from Vetenskapsrådet, the Swedish Research Council, project 2020-03444. SD acknowledges support from the Marie Curie Individual Fellowship under grant ID 890695 and a Junior Research Fellowship at Lucy Cavendish College. LH is funded by the Irish Research Council under grant number GOIPG/2020/1387. T.E.M.B. acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MCIN), the Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI) 10.13039/501100011033, and the European Union Next Generation EU/PRTR funds under the 2021 Juan de la Cierva program FJC2021-047124-I and the PID2020-115253GA-I00 HOSTFLOWS project, from Centro Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) under the PIE project 20215AT016, and the program Unidad de Excelencia María de Maeztu CEX2020-001058-M. Y.-L.K. has received funding from the Science and Technology Facilities Council [grant number ST/V000713/1]. Based on observations obtained with the Samuel Oschin Telescope 48-inch and the 60-inch Telescope at the Palomar Observatory as part of the Zwicky Transient Facility project. ZTF is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grants No. AST-1440341 and AST-2034437 and a collaboration including partners Caltech, IPAC, the Weizmann Institute of Science, the Oskar Klein Center at Stockholm University, the University of Maryland, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron and Humboldt University, the TANGO Consortium of Taiwan, the University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee, Trinity College Dublin, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories, IN2P3, University of Warwick, Ruhr University Bochum, Northwestern University and former partners the University of Washington, Los Alamos National Laboratories, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories. Operations are conducted by COO, IPAC, and UW. SED Machine is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 1106171. The ZTF forced-photometry service was funded under the Heising-Simons Foundation grant #12540303 (PI: Graham). This work made use of the Heidelberg Supernova Model Archive (HESMA), https://hesma.h-its.org.

Data Availability

The properties of the secondary maximum derived from our Gaussian Process fits are available at the CDS via anonymous ftp to cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr (130.79.128.5) or via https://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/cat/J/A+A/694/A12.

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